Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Psychology / Clive J. A. Fullagar / Interpersonal conflict has remained a pervasive and important issue in all organizations. Despite the prevalence of workplace conflict and high individual and organizational costs, hypotheses regarding the effects of operationalizing work conflict in different ways have been largely ignored and only indirectly investigated. Study 1 experimentally examined the extent to which the process of conflict resolution was affected by context (i.e., definitional differences). Results from 507 college student participants indicated that felt conflict was manipulated by subtly changing the definition of work conflict used in survey instructions. While the manipulation was somewhat effective, the effect size was weak. Ultimately, students’ perceptions about what the conflict was about directly predicted conflict intensity, frequency, efficacy, and some resolution preferences. Results from Study 1 help refute recent criticisms that operationalizing work conflict in different ways has created a fragmented literature base, and allowed for Study 2 to move away from measurement and design issues to the more pragmatic concern of investigating the newly established and important concept of conflict efficacy, including its antecedents and consequences. Although self-efficacy is one of the most popular constructs in psychology, little research has examined conflict efficacy, or one’s assessment of their ability to resolve interpersonal conflicts. Study 2, a cross-sectional study, tested a model in which conflict efficacy (CE) was the central research variable. Study 2 attempted to establish conflict resolution skills, mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, physiological arousal, and verbal persuasion as antecedents of CE, and negative interactions at work and positive social relationships at work as key outcomes of CE. Results from 137 college students indicated that the hypothesized sources of conflict efficacy were actually better predictors of positive work relationships than either task or domain CE. Negative interactions at work and positive social relationships were predicted by task CE. In addition, frequency of negative work interactions was found to moderate the effect of conflict avoidance preference on work relationships such that avoiding was negatively related to positive work relationships when the individual experienced frequent negative interactions at work, but non-significantly related when relatively less negative interactions at work were experienced.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Psychology / Clive J. A. Fullagar / New scales were developed to measure conflict between work and school and family and school. These scales displayed adequate psychometric properties. A scale was developed to measure the propensity to experience inter-role conflict. The Propensity for Inter-role Conflict Scale (PIRCS) has excellent psychometric properties as established through exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis and scale and item analysis. PIRCS scores mediated the relationship between 14 of the 15 inter-role conflict to inter-role conflict pairs and displayed incremental validity, beyond known correlates of inter-role conflict, in the prediction of the six forms of inter-role conflict included in the study. The consequences of inter-role conflict were shown to affect the frequency of conflict between roles. However, this was only true when the data were aggregated. This indicates people take deliberate actions to limit certain forms of inter-role conflict. The boundaries between roles are differentially permeable. The work role boundary was most resistant to inter-role conflict. The family role boundary was least resistant to conflict from other roles. Personal characteristics affected the amount of inter-role conflict a person experienced. Women experienced significantly more conflict between family and school and school and family than men. Women were more adversely affected by the presence of children in the home than were men. Work conditions were also related to the experience of inter-role conflict. Working more hours was associated with higher levels of work-to-family and work-to-school conflict. Participants who worked weekends reported higher levels of work-to-family and work-to-school conflict. Employees who perceived greater flexibility at work reported less work-to-family and work-to-school conflict than those with less flexibility. The more semester hours participants were taking, the more conflict they reported between family and school, school and family and work and school. Spending more time on homework and study was associated with higher levels of conflict from school to family. The spillover of conflict between spouses was also demonstrated. The more hours a participant‟s spouse worked the more conflict the participant experienced from family to school and school to family.

Master of Science / Department of Psychology / Patrick A. Knight / A structural equations model hypothesizing that individuals' core self-evaluations would significantly predict their preferences for various pay plan characteristics (e.g., high risk, variable pay, etc.) was tested. This hypothesis, which specified that individuals with higher levels of core self-evaluations would prefer pay plans that offered greater risk and less certainty regarding the amount of pay received, was supported. Furthermore, it was also hypothesized that congruence between an individual's preferred pay plan characteristics and the actual type of pay plan that he or she receives would result in higher levels of employee job satisfaction and pay satisfaction. This hypothesis was partially supported, as the relationship between congruence and job satisfaction was significant, while the relationship between congruence and pay satisfaction was not significant. Finally, it was hypothesized that the relationship between congruence and satisfaction would be moderated by the value that the individual places on money. This hypothesis was not supported. The results of this research indicate that personality characteristics may have a significant impact on the type of pay plan that an individual will prefer to receive. Furthermore, this research provides additional support for the belief that high levels of fit between the characteristics of individuals and the characteristics of the organizations for which they work will result in higher levels of employee satisfaction. Finally, the degree of importance that an individual places on money does not appear to alter the relationship between fit and satisfaction. These results have strong implications for businesses that wish to improve employee satisfaction and reduce employee turnover, as well as for individuals who are seeking occupations for which they will best be suited.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Psychology / Clive J. A. Fullagar / While researchers have begun to study “flow” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) as it applies to the workplace, little is known about the impact of leadership on followers’ flow experiences. The current study examined the effect of transformational leadership on followers’ experiences of flow. It was hypothesized that transformational leaders would have an indirect effect on flow through their positive influence on psychological climate. Bakker’s (2008) WOLF scale was used to assess work-related flow. Results supported the hypothesis; psychological climate fully mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and flow. Transformational leaders had a strong indirect effect on all three components of work-related flow: intrinsic motivation, work enjoyment, and absorption. It was also hypothesized that each of the five climate dimensions would significantly mediate the leadership-flow relationship. The dimensions were examined simultaneously in a multiple mediator model to identify the unique contribution of each dimension. Results indicated that three dimensions were significant mediators of the leadership-flow relationship: contribution, recognition, and challenge. Because Kahn (1990) found these dimensions to be indicative of psychological meaningfulness, this study builds on other research linking transformational leadership to perceptions of meaning. While transformational leadership strongly predicted all five climate dimensions, two dimensions failed to contribute to the prediction of flow and to the overall mediating effect of climate: role clarity and supportive management. Longitudinal research is needed to validate the causal nature of the findings in this study. By conceptualizing “flow” as a specific form of momentary cognitive engagement, the present study illustrates the applicability of “flow” to the workplace. The findings of this study point to leadership behaviors and climate conditions that are conducive to flow. Managers seeking to improve employee engagement can apply these findings to the workplace.

Master of Science / Department of Psychology / Satoris S. Culbertson / Performance appraisals are an important component to any organization’s performance management system. They require supervisors to observe and retain information regarding employee performance. This study sought to investigate the effects of appraisal purpose in this process. This extension and replication of Williams, DeNisi, Meglino, and Cafferty’s (1986) lab study of appraisal purpose investigated whether designating an employee for a positive outcome results in lenient performance ratings and vice-versa for a negative designation. This outcome would indicate assimilation, whereby the designation acts as an anchor creating bias in the direction of the anchor. However, the negative and positive designations may both result in leniency, indicating a universal tendency toward leniency when memory for performance is limited. Furthermore, I investigated whether making a deservedness rating for each employee would result in less lenient or severe ratings, relative to the designation conditions. Finally, I investigated whether self-reported rater expertise would moderate the assimilation effect. A total of 108 undergraduate students from a large Midwestern university viewed confederates performing cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) on a dummy and were instructed to observe performance in order to make a designation (positive or negative) or deservedness rating, or were given no instructions (control). They made an initial decision and were then asked to return two days later and rate each confederate’s performance again. Consistent with previous findings, raters making positive designations tended to give lenient ratings, relative to other conditions. Furthermore, as expected, those making negative designations gave relatively severe ratings. Finally, the results also partially supported my expectation that rater expertise in the performance domain moderates the biasing effects of appraisal purpose. Implications for practice and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Psychology / Clive J. A. Fullagar / Entrenched within the sphere of positive psychology, the present series of studies takes a progressive approach to understanding and furthering the practical application of constructs subsumed within the subfield of positive organizational behavior (POB). The progression begins with Study 1, which analyzes the factorial structure and psychometric footholds of the primary measurement instrument for Psychological Capital (PsyCap), one of the newer positive psychological constructs. This study suggested that both the measurement of this construct in addition to its factor structure may need to be reevaluated in order to best conceptualize the multifactorial nature of this variable. In turn, Study 2 involves resilience, one of the four aspects of PsyCap, and suggests that it may play an important role in molding employees’ work experiences. Specifically, Study 2 explores the relations between workload and eudaimonic and hedonic well-being over a two-week period, finding that workload is negatively related to eudaimonic well-being, but, interestingly, positively related to hedonic well-being. However, hypotheses suggesting that resilience and role salience may independently moderate workload’s relations with eudaimonic and hedonic well-being were not supported. Finally, recognizing the potential value of these positive psychological constructs (resilience and well-being in particular) for employers and employees alike, Study 3 aimed to develop interventions capable of increasing individuals’ positive personal resources, whereby they may enhance their ability to endure work challenges and even thrive in the face of such challenges. Findings indicated that the intervention targeting resilience did not result in significant differences between a control group and the intervention group. The intervention targeting well-being resulted in no differences in hedonic well-being, but did evidence differences on the personal growth aspect of eudaimonic well-being. Overall, these three studies taken together speak to the applicability of positive organizational behavior constructs in the workplace, and how such constructs might be enhanced in employees.

The focus of this inquiry is “The influence of ‘spiritual meaning-making’ on career choice, transition and experience”. Over the past decade there has been an increase in interest in the expression of spiritual belief in work. Most of the writing on the topic is based on the premise that individuals and organisations have lost meaning, and that the problem of meaning in work needs to addressed to enhance the ways in which we organise, and to enhance organisational output and personal wellbeing. Whereas the current writing on spirituality and work often suggests that organisations should provide more meaning, this research took a more humble starting point by asking what meanings individuals with spiritual belief are currently attributing to, and discovering in, their work, and by asking how and whether these meanings determine work behaviour. I argue in this thesis that the concept of meaning-making is central to spirituality. I reviewed the psychological literature on meaning and as a result decided to focus the inquiry on three core elements of meaning; purpose, sense-making and coherence. In order to step back from the organisational agenda, and give voice to the authenticity of diverse spiritual beliefs, I chose to use career, rather than organisational theory, as framework for this inquiry. An additional theoretical framework of ‘agency and communion’ was introduced to conceptualise human motivation beyond its current narrow ‘self’ and ‘doing’ oriented definitions. A combination of ‘collaborative human inquiry’ and ‘narrative’ methodology was chosen to elicit subjective career meanings. Fifteen individuals with diverse spiritual beliefs participated in this research. These included a Buddhist, a Quaker, a Catholic, a Bahá'í, and a Mormon, as well as those not currently affiliated with an organized religion. The findings show that spiritual belief strongly determines career choice, transition and experience. It was found that research participants, in spite of their diverse beliefs, shared four purposes: ‘developing and becoming self’, ‘union with others’, ‘expressing self’ and ‘serving others’. When these purposes can be expressed fully, the workplace is experienced to be aligned with spiritual belief, and individuals are contributing fully, especially when diversity of spiritual expressions is acknowledged at the same time. Career transitions are made through an ongoing sense-making process as a result of which the individual may decide that the four purposes are no longer in balance and action is required in order to continue to live meaningfully. This sensemaking is a result of ongoing interaction between the individual and his or her work environment. Coherence is a result of the transrational element of spirituality, when the individual feels his or her work is still aligned with a bigger (divine) plan. This is assessed on an ongoing basis through prayer, asking ‘was this meant to be’ and reframing difficulties and setbacks as opportunities for learning and development. I suggest that it may not be wise to seek collective enactment of the trans-rational as it has no firm basis for collective organisational decision-making. It cannot seek collective expression due to the diversity of beliefs of organisational members. However I strongly suggest that an organisation that wants to align itself with the spiritual beliefs of its members, ensures that the four purposes of ‘developing and becoming self’, ‘union with others’, ‘expressing self’ and ‘serving others’ can be fully enacted in the organisation, keeping in mind that spirituality expresses itself in process as well as outcome. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations only.

The focus of this inquiry is “The influence of ‘spiritual meaning-making’ on career choice, transition and experience”. Over the past decade there has been an increase in interest in the expression of spiritual belief in work. Most of the writing on the topic is based on the premise that individuals and organisations have lost meaning, and that the problem of meaning in work needs to addressed to enhance the ways in which we organise, and to enhance organisational output and personal wellbeing. Whereas the current writing on spirituality and work often suggests that organisations should provide more meaning, this research took a more humble starting point by asking what meanings individuals with spiritual belief are currently attributing to, and discovering in, their work, and by asking how and whether these meanings determine work behaviour. I argue in this thesis that the concept of meaning-making is central to spirituality. I reviewed the psychological literature on meaning and as a result decided to focus the inquiry on three core elements of meaning; purpose, sense-making and coherence. In order to step back from the organisational agenda, and give voice to the authenticity of diverse spiritual beliefs, I chose to use career, rather than organisational theory, as framework for this inquiry. An additional theoretical framework of ‘agency and communion’ was introduced to conceptualise human motivation beyond its current narrow ‘self’ and ‘doing’ oriented definitions. A combination of ‘collaborative human inquiry’ and ‘narrative’ methodology was chosen to elicit subjective career meanings. Fifteen individuals with diverse spiritual beliefs participated in this research. These included a Buddhist, a Quaker, a Catholic, a Bahá'í, and a Mormon, as well as those not currently affiliated with an organized religion. The findings show that spiritual belief strongly determines career choice, transition and experience. It was found that research participants, in spite of their diverse beliefs, shared four purposes: ‘developing and becoming self’, ‘union with others’, ‘expressing self’ and ‘serving others’. When these purposes can be expressed fully, the workplace is experienced to be aligned with spiritual belief, and individuals are contributing fully, especially when diversity of spiritual expressions is acknowledged at the same time. Career transitions are made through an ongoing sense-making process as a result of which the individual may decide that the four purposes are no longer in balance and action is required in order to continue to live meaningfully. This sensemaking is a result of ongoing interaction between the individual and his or her work environment. Coherence is a result of the transrational element of spirituality, when the individual feels his or her work is still aligned with a bigger (divine) plan. This is assessed on an ongoing basis through prayer, asking ‘was this meant to be’ and reframing difficulties and setbacks as opportunities for learning and development. I suggest that it may not be wise to seek collective enactment of the trans-rational as it has no firm basis for collective organisational decision-making. It cannot seek collective expression due to the diversity of beliefs of organisational members. However I strongly suggest that an organisation that wants to align itself with the spiritual beliefs of its members, ensures that the four purposes of ‘developing and becoming self’, ‘union with others’, ‘expressing self’ and ‘serving others’ can be fully enacted in the organisation, keeping in mind that spirituality expresses itself in process as well as outcome. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations only.

The focus of this inquiry is “The influence of ‘spiritual meaning-making’ on career choice, transition and experience”. Over the past decade there has been an increase in interest in the expression of spiritual belief in work. Most of the writing on the topic is based on the premise that individuals and organisations have lost meaning, and that the problem of meaning in work needs to addressed to enhance the ways in which we organise, and to enhance organisational output and personal wellbeing. Whereas the current writing on spirituality and work often suggests that organisations should provide more meaning, this research took a more humble starting point by asking what meanings individuals with spiritual belief are currently attributing to, and discovering in, their work, and by asking how and whether these meanings determine work behaviour. I argue in this thesis that the concept of meaning-making is central to spirituality. I reviewed the psychological literature on meaning and as a result decided to focus the inquiry on three core elements of meaning; purpose, sense-making and coherence. In order to step back from the organisational agenda, and give voice to the authenticity of diverse spiritual beliefs, I chose to use career, rather than organisational theory, as framework for this inquiry. An additional theoretical framework of ‘agency and communion’ was introduced to conceptualise human motivation beyond its current narrow ‘self’ and ‘doing’ oriented definitions. A combination of ‘collaborative human inquiry’ and ‘narrative’ methodology was chosen to elicit subjective career meanings. Fifteen individuals with diverse spiritual beliefs participated in this research. These included a Buddhist, a Quaker, a Catholic, a Bahá'í, and a Mormon, as well as those not currently affiliated with an organized religion. The findings show that spiritual belief strongly determines career choice, transition and experience. It was found that research participants, in spite of their diverse beliefs, shared four purposes: ‘developing and becoming self’, ‘union with others’, ‘expressing self’ and ‘serving others’. When these purposes can be expressed fully, the workplace is experienced to be aligned with spiritual belief, and individuals are contributing fully, especially when diversity of spiritual expressions is acknowledged at the same time. Career transitions are made through an ongoing sense-making process as a result of which the individual may decide that the four purposes are no longer in balance and action is required in order to continue to live meaningfully. This sensemaking is a result of ongoing interaction between the individual and his or her work environment. Coherence is a result of the transrational element of spirituality, when the individual feels his or her work is still aligned with a bigger (divine) plan. This is assessed on an ongoing basis through prayer, asking ‘was this meant to be’ and reframing difficulties and setbacks as opportunities for learning and development. I suggest that it may not be wise to seek collective enactment of the trans-rational as it has no firm basis for collective organisational decision-making. It cannot seek collective expression due to the diversity of beliefs of organisational members. However I strongly suggest that an organisation that wants to align itself with the spiritual beliefs of its members, ensures that the four purposes of ‘developing and becoming self’, ‘union with others’, ‘expressing self’ and ‘serving others’ can be fully enacted in the organisation, keeping in mind that spirituality expresses itself in process as well as outcome. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations only.

The focus of this inquiry is “The influence of ‘spiritual meaning-making’ on career choice, transition and experience”. Over the past decade there has been an increase in interest in the expression of spiritual belief in work. Most of the writing on the topic is based on the premise that individuals and organisations have lost meaning, and that the problem of meaning in work needs to addressed to enhance the ways in which we organise, and to enhance organisational output and personal wellbeing. Whereas the current writing on spirituality and work often suggests that organisations should provide more meaning, this research took a more humble starting point by asking what meanings individuals with spiritual belief are currently attributing to, and discovering in, their work, and by asking how and whether these meanings determine work behaviour. I argue in this thesis that the concept of meaning-making is central to spirituality. I reviewed the psychological literature on meaning and as a result decided to focus the inquiry on three core elements of meaning; purpose, sense-making and coherence. In order to step back from the organisational agenda, and give voice to the authenticity of diverse spiritual beliefs, I chose to use career, rather than organisational theory, as framework for this inquiry. An additional theoretical framework of ‘agency and communion’ was introduced to conceptualise human motivation beyond its current narrow ‘self’ and ‘doing’ oriented definitions. A combination of ‘collaborative human inquiry’ and ‘narrative’ methodology was chosen to elicit subjective career meanings. Fifteen individuals with diverse spiritual beliefs participated in this research. These included a Buddhist, a Quaker, a Catholic, a Bahá'í, and a Mormon, as well as those not currently affiliated with an organized religion. The findings show that spiritual belief strongly determines career choice, transition and experience. It was found that research participants, in spite of their diverse beliefs, shared four purposes: ‘developing and becoming self’, ‘union with others’, ‘expressing self’ and ‘serving others’. When these purposes can be expressed fully, the workplace is experienced to be aligned with spiritual belief, and individuals are contributing fully, especially when diversity of spiritual expressions is acknowledged at the same time. Career transitions are made through an ongoing sense-making process as a result of which the individual may decide that the four purposes are no longer in balance and action is required in order to continue to live meaningfully. This sensemaking is a result of ongoing interaction between the individual and his or her work environment. Coherence is a result of the transrational element of spirituality, when the individual feels his or her work is still aligned with a bigger (divine) plan. This is assessed on an ongoing basis through prayer, asking ‘was this meant to be’ and reframing difficulties and setbacks as opportunities for learning and development. I suggest that it may not be wise to seek collective enactment of the trans-rational as it has no firm basis for collective organisational decision-making. It cannot seek collective expression due to the diversity of beliefs of organisational members. However I strongly suggest that an organisation that wants to align itself with the spiritual beliefs of its members, ensures that the four purposes of ‘developing and becoming self’, ‘union with others’, ‘expressing self’ and ‘serving others’ can be fully enacted in the organisation, keeping in mind that spirituality expresses itself in process as well as outcome. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations only.