Objective: The purpose of this dissertation was to determine whether measures of reaction time inconsistency (RTI) can be applied clinically to detect cognitive impairment in older adults. Methods: Data were obtained from the Victoria Longitudinal Study (VLS), a longitudinal study of healthy aging, and PREVENT, a multivariate study of risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease. Study 1 examined effects of task complexity and computational approach on the association between RTI and physical and cognitive functioning in participants of the VLS. Study 2 assembled normative data from the VLS and standardized RTI data from an independent VLS cohort against these normative data. Significant Study 1 findings were replicated in Study 2 using the obtained RTI T-Scores, and the clinical utility of results were evaluated using stratum specific likelihood ratios (SSLRs). Study 3 replicated Study 2 analyses in data from PREVENT. Results: Results of Study 1 identified four operationalizations of RTI from a choice reaction task that yielded consistent significant associations with cross-sectional cognitive performance. Consistent associations were not observed between these scores and cognitive change or performance on measures of physical functioning. Study 2 replicated Study 1 findings in an independent sample using RTI T-Scores. SSLRs supported the clinical utility of measures of RTI for detecting prevalent cognitive impairment. Study 3 replicated findings from Study 2, but SSLRs indicated that only low RTI scores yielded associations of sufficient reliability for clinical interpretation. Consistent with Study 1 and Study 2, associations between RTI T-Scores and measures of physical function were nonsignificant. Conclusions: Low RTI T-Scores were shown across two samples to be associated with a clinically meaningful reduction in the odds of cognitive impairment. Further research is needed in order to clarify the utility of high RTI scores for positive prediction of cognitive impairment. / Graduate

The aim of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the attachment scale added in the newly developed self-rating questionnaire Trauma Symptom Inventory-2 (TSI-2). Participants were recruited from the Swedish parent-infant unit Hagadal (N=58). Reliability analyses concluded Cronbach´s α .92 for attachment total scale, .88 for avoidance subscale, and .91 for rejection sensitivity subscale. Convergent validity analyses concluded moderate to strong correlations between TSI-2 attachment scale and subscales, and Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR) total scale and subscales (r= .34 - .68, p ≤ .01). Criterion validity analyses concluded that adverse childhood circumstances measured by Linköping Youth Life Experiences Scale (LYLES) signficantly estimated 17 % of variance in TSI-2 attachment scale scores. Preliminary support for reliability and validity of the TSI-2 attachment scale was obtained. No previous trauma symptom rating instrument has included information about adult attachment styles. The present findings point to the benefits of such inclusion.

The purpose of the present study was to elucidate if caffeine ingestion reduced perception of effort at submaximal intensities during a maximal exercise test. A secondary purpose of this study was to examine the role of a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) at intron 1 of cytochrome P-450 gene in modulating caffeine’s influence on ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) at the same submaximal exercise intensities. Twelve healthy men (age: 24±1 yr., BMI: 23.9±1.2 kg.m2) volunteered to participate in the present study. Subjects consumed 6 mg.kg-1 of USP grade caffeine in 200ml of non-caloric, coloured and flavoured water, or a placebo-matched drink in a single-blind, randomised and crossover style design. Subjects remained seated for 1 hour after consuming the assigned drink, and subsequently completed an incremental maximal exercise test on a bicycle ergometer, which started at 0 Watts for 1 minute and increased by 25 Watts per minute until volitional exhaustion. RPE was reported every third minute during the test. DNA was obtained from whole blood samples and genotypes were determined using previously described methods. Similar to previous studies looking at this SNP, subjects were categorised into groups of AA homozygotes and C allele carriers for statistical analyses between genotypes. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA’s were performed (Treatment × Genotype) for RPE responses at submaximal workloads up to 300 Watts. Significant results were followed up using the bonferroni post-hoc method. There were no significant differences between individuals homozygous for the A variant and C allele carriers for age, height, weight, body mass index (BMI), and VO2max. A significant Time × Treatment interaction was observed (F=5.804, p<0.05) for the rate of increase in RPE between trials. A significant Treatment × Genotype interaction was also found (F=5.714, p<0.05), by which C allele carriers exhibited greater reductions in RPE during the caffeine trial compared to AA homozygotes. The findings of the present study indicate that perception of effort is reduced in individuals who metabolise caffeine at a slower rate (i.e. in C allele carriers). It is postulated that AA homozygotes do not experience reductions in RPE due to a greater cardiovascular workload and enhanced CNS excitability following caffeine ingestion / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

The purpose of this study was to investigate the amount and patterns of interrelatedness of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the 1968 revised edition of the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA). The study attempted to analyze from both the practical and statistical levels relationships between the two instruments. Further clarification was sought as to the: (1) dimensions measured by the ITPA, (2) concurrent validity of the ITPA, and (3) necessity of administering both instruments in their entirity in psychological evaluations.

<p> Despite their widespread use, controversy remains about how to best interpret norm-referenced tests of cognitive ability. Due to the fact that contemporary cognitive measures appraise performance at multiple levels (e.g., subtest, factor, full-scale), a multitude of inferences about individual functioning are possible. Because school psychologists primarily utilize intelligence tests for predicting achievement outcomes, the cognitive variables that provide the most optimal weighting for prediction are of greatest importance. This study examined the predictive validity of the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) factor structure from the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ-COG; Woodcock, McGrew, &amp; Mather, 2011c). Specifically, the incremental achievement variance accounted for by the CHC broad factors, after controlling for the effects of the General Intellectual Ability (GIA) composite, was assessed across reading, mathematics, writing, and oral language variables from the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement (WJ-ACH; Woodcock, McGrew, &amp; Mather, 2001b). Hierarchical regression was used to assess predictive relationships between the cognitive-achievement variables on the Woodcock-Johnson III assessment battery (WJ-III; Woodcock, McGrew, &amp; Mather, 2001a). This study utilized archived standard score data from individuals (<i>N</i> = 4,722) who participated in the original WJ-III standardization project. Results showed that the GIA accounted for the largest portions of achievement for all but one of the regression models that were assessed. Across the models, the GIA variance coefficients represented moderate to large effects whereas the CHC factors accounted for non-significant incremental effects in most of the models. Nevertheless, the WJ-COG factor scores did account for meaningful portions of achievement variance in several situations: (a) in predicting oral expression scores; (b) in the presence of significant inter-factor variability; and (c) when the effects of Spearman's law of diminishing returns (SLODR) was accounted for in reading, mathematics, and written language regression models. Additionally, the chi-square goodness of fit test was utilized to assess model invariance across several moderating variables. Results suggest that incremental validity is not a unitary construct and is not invariant across samples on the WJ-COG. Additionally, simultaneous interpretation of both the GIA and CHC factor scores on the WJ-COG may be useful within specific clinical contexts.</p>

<p> Objective: While brief bouts of exercise improve cognitive function, more prolonged exercise can suppress attention and executive function. Dehydration and heat exposure are known contributors to these deficits, though the role of blood sugar changes during exercise in cognitive dysfunction is less understood at this time. The current study sought to clarify the independent contribution of blood glucose levels to cognitive function following demanding exercise. </p><p> Method: Healthy adult males (N= 10, age= 21.9 +/- 1.97 years) presented for two counterbalanced experimental trials in a 100 degrees F heated chamber. Each experimental trial consisted of BASELINE glucose and cognitive function assessments, as measured by the Logical Relations (LR) and Running Memory Continuous Performance Task (RMCPT) subtests of the Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics- 4th Edition (ANAM4). Participants then completed 120 minutes of exercise on a cycle ergometer, with glucose and cognitive function measured POST-EXERCISE. Next, participants rehydrated with a zero-sugar or full-sugar sports beverage, with measures of glucose and cognitive function repeated immediately POST-REHYDRATION. Finally, after a 15-minute recovery period during which the participants rested while not permitted to drink, they completed experimental measures an additional time, at POST-RECOVERY. </p><p> Results: Physiological response to the experimental trials was similar across conditions. Participants demonstrated significantly reduced blood glucose levels (F(1,9)=16.93, p&lt;0.01) and lost an average of 2.57% of their body weight following exercise. Contrary to hypotheses, repeated measures ANOVA showed performance on LR did not change from BASELINE to POST-EXERCISE and actually declined from POST-EXERCISE to POST-REHYDRATION (F(1,9)=9.44, p=0.01). Performance on RMCPT improved from BASELINE to POST-EXERCISE (F(19)=5.43, p&lt;0.05) and the zero-sugar condition produced gains from POST-REHYDRATION to POST-RECOVERY (F(1,9)=6.45, p=0.03) relative to the full-sugar condition. </p><p> Conclusion: Contrary to past studies, cognitive function did not universally decline with strenuous exercise, despite reduced blood glucose levels. Performances on an attention measure increased following exercise and were unexpectedly better at POST-RECOVERY for the zero- versus the full-sugar condition. However, executive functioning was stable to POST-EXERCISE and declined following rehydration. The exact mechanisms responsible for this pattern of findings are unclear, but likely involve a combination of limited core temperature increase and dehydration level, reactivity to blood sugar fluctuations, and multiple possible variables not assessed in the current study such as neurotransmitter and blood lactate levels, brain temperature, physiological arousal, and task engagement. Future studies are needed to better understand the inconsistent findings across the literature, as a significant number of individuals engage in strenuous and prolonged exercise regularly, including those involved in service positions (i.e., military personnel and firefighters). Articulating the mechanisms at play in this phenomenon may increase safety and improve performance. </p>

The aim of this thesis is to examine objective laboratory measures of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adult persons and to develop measures for diagnosis and treatment using a psychometric instrument called the Quantified Behavior Test Plus. The instrument objectively quantifies cardinal symptom manifestations in adult ADHD using motion tracking devices and continuous performance testing. Paper I-IV suggest that ADHD predisposes adult persons to perform poorer on continuous performance tasks and to have higher levels of motor activity while performing these tasks as compared to other clinical as well as non-clinical groups. Performance by adults with ADHD is normalized following stimulant treatment which implicates therapeutic effects and measures of response to treatment and remission for ADHD is suggested. Paper I concludes that the psychometric instrument needs to be calibrated with regard to adult ADHD and emphasizes the importance of a composite measure for the disorder. Paper II generates two new measures, the Weighed Core Symptom scale (WCS) - a composite measure of adult ADHD ranging from 0 to 100, and Prediction of ADHD (PADHD) - a categorical variable of the diagnostic status with good predictive power. A majority of participants with ADHD has low points on WCS (indicating high levels of symptoms) and a majority of non-ADHD normative participants has high points on WCS (indicating low levels of symptoms). Paper III examines WCS and PADHD among complex clinical groups with shared symptoms vis-à-vis ADHD. Here, findings from Paper II are replicated since participants with ADHD present the highest level of global symptoms, followed by participants with bipolar II disorder and borderline personality disorder, participant with diconfirmed ADHD and finally, non-clinical participants has the lowest level of global symptoms. In Paper IV, the measures are proposed as indications of response to treatment and remission after titration with stimulant treatment and WCS indicates response to small changes in dose level. The major findings of the present thesis may be summarized as the construction of two new objective measures for ADHD in adult persons with practical implications for diagnosis and treatment. Hyperactivity is the most specific marker of ADHD in both men and women, followed by the cognitive markers of inattention and impulsivity. The composite measure, WCS, quantifies the global amount of ADHD symptoms and provides the most sensitive measure for the disorder. PADHD and WCS may not replace a thorough neuropsychiatric assessment and further studies promoting diagnostic subtype stratification is suggested. Future studies may want to consider these measures in outcome-based investigations of treatment efficacy as well as in the study of neuropsychological endophenotypes. Practical implications include clinical strategies to enhance objectivity during assessment as well as optimizing beneficial effects of treatment and attaining remission.

The Functional Outcome Profile (FOP, Joschko & Skelton, 2003) was developed to be a broad measure of functional outcome following brain injury, unique from existing outcome measures. The purpose of this thesis was to investigate the underlying assumptions and psychometric properties of aspects of the FOP. Data from 107 brain injury survivors and 20 matched significant others were utilized. Exploratory investigations of the items, the scoring and the subscales were undertaken first, followed by investigations of the internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the outcome scores and the survivor-proxy agreement of the frequency ratings. Finally, multiple lines of evidence for the validity of the FOP were put forth based on the content, its relation to external, demographic variables and its sensitivity to change over time. In general, the FOP was found to be a reliable measure of outcome following brain injury with the subscale scores providing the most useful information. The implications for these findings are discussed.

<p> The central topic of this research is an examination of the philosophical assumptions of depth psychology as they relate to splitting in depth psychology. The intention of the researcher was to examine this topic from multiple perspectives. The researcher utilized a qualitative methodology, dialogical hermeneutics, to compare the influences and assumptions of the differing schools of depth psychology. </p><p> Depth psychology is the study of mental functioning that includes and values unconscious mental processes. Over the past 100 years, numerous splits, dissensions, and modifications have occurred. Splits have occurred between individuals and between factions within institutes, resulting in an ever-increasing plurality of depth psychological training schools. Such infighting has resulted in an erosion of prestige, which has left the discipline in danger of dissolution. </p><p> The primary questions of this research were these: What are the fundamental philosophical assumptions underlying depth psychology in general and do these philosophical assumptions contribute to splitting within the field of depth psychology? </p><p> One of the most basic assumptions of depth psychology held that nature is dualistic and that human beings are divided within and amongst themselves, which led to a belief in the reality of opposites, an ever-present ontological struggle between polar forces. This assumption was consistently maintained in Jung's psychological system and present but inconsistently held by Freud. Jung believed that there was a fundamental unity in nature that was divided. Freud did not. Jung believed that the problem of the opposites could be transcended, leading to a higher level of integration and assimilation. Freud did not. Freud's influences flowed from objective, deterministic, and rational, materialistic assumptions, whereas Jung's epistemology was more influenced by the idealistic and romantic traditions, which emphasized a subjective, irrational, and teleological approach to knowledge. Freud understood splitting as simply conflictual, whereas Jung saw splitting as conflictual but also purposive, leading towards wholeness. Their positions reflected a philosophical split in the culture that has persisted since classical times, between objective and subjective approaches to understanding reality. Their respective personalities pulled them toward opposing sides of this classic ontological divide. </p><p> The researcher concluded that knowledge inevitably and necessarily develops through conflict, best approached with awareness and tempered with tolerance. </p>

Objective: Obesity is one of the leading public health problems worldwide. Obese individuals are often stigmatized and the psychosocial consequences of overweight and obesity are the subject of current research. To detect stigmatizing attitudes towards obese people, the Fat Phobia Scale (FPS) was developed in the USA in the early nineties. In addition, the 14-item short form of the FPS was constructed. The FPS belongs to the most commonly used instruments for measuring negative attitudes towards obese people because of its good psychometric properties. For the recently developed German short form of the FPS, however, the comprehensive investigation of the psychometric properties and the determination of reference values are still pending. Thus, the main objectives of this study were the evaluation of the psychometric quality of the scale as well as the calculation of reference values. Methods: The study was based on a representative survey in the German general population. A sample of 1,657 subjects (18–94 years) was assessed via structured telephone interviews including the 14-item German version of the FPS. Descriptive statistics and inference-statistical analyses were conducted. Reference values in terms of percentage ranks were calculated. Results: Substantial evidence for the reliability and validity of the German short version of the FPS was found. This study, for the first time in Germany, provides age-specific reference values for the German short form of the FPS allowing the interpretation of individual test scores. Conclusion: Facing the far-reaching consequences of experienced stigmatization of obese individuals, these study results provide an important basis for further studies aiming at the investigation of negative attitudes towards overweight and obesity.