Packed bed reactors with counter-current, gas-liquid flows have been considered to be applicable in CO2 capture systems for post-combustion processing from fossil-fueled power production units. However, the hydrodynamics within the packing used in these reactors under counter-current flow has not been assessed to provide insight into design and operational parameters that may impact reactor and reaction efficiencies. Hence, experimental testing of a laboratory-scale spherical ball, packed bed with two-phase flow was accomplished and then a meso-scale 3D CFD model was developed to numerically simulate the conditions and outcomes of the experimental tests. Also, the hydrodynamics of two-phase flow in a packed bed with structured packing were simulated using a meso-scale, 3D CFD model and then validated using empirical models. The CFD model successfully characterized the hydrodynamics inside the packing, with a focus on parameters such as the wetted surface areas, gas-liquid interactions, liquid distributions, pressure drops, liquid holdups, film thicknesses and flow regimes. The simulation results clearly demonstrated the development of and changes in liquid distributions, wetted areas and film thicknesses under various gas and liquid flow rates. Gas and liquid interactions were observed to occur at the interface of the gas and liquid through liquid entrainment and droplet formation, and it became more dominant as the Reynolds numbers increased. Liquid film thicknesses in the structured packing were much thinner than in the spherical ball packing, and increased with increasing liquid flow rates. Gas flow rates had no significant effect on film thicknesses. Film flow and trickle flow regimes were found in both the spherical ball and structured packing. A macro-scale, porous model was also developed which was less computationally intensive than the meso-scale, 3D CFD model. The macro-scale model was used to study the spherical ball packing and to modify its closure equations. It was found that the Ergun equation, typically used in the porous model, was not suitable for multi-phase flow. Hence, it was modified by replacing porosity with the actual pore volume within the liquid phase; this modification successfully accounted for liquid holdup which was predicted via a proposed equation.

The objective of this work was to develop a novel enzyme immobilization scheme for supported lipase sol-gels and to evaluate the potential of the immobilized biocatalyst for the production of biodiesel in a packed bed reactor. Two sources of lipase (EC 3.1.1.3 triacylglycerol hydrolase) were used in this study and the transesterification of methanol and triolein to produce glycerol and methyl oleate was used as a model reaction of biodiesel production. A commercially available form of immobilized lipase, Novozym® 435, was used as a basis for comparison to the literature. Upon establishing a lipase sol-gel formulation technique, the experimental methodology for the transesterification reaction using Novozyme® 435 was developed. Subsequently, a series of inert materials were considered based on their suitability as supports for immobilized lipase sol-gels and the synthesis of methyl oleate. The value of a supported lipase sol-gel is to improve the activity and stability of the enzyme and develop an immobilized biocatalyst that is practical for use under packed bed reactor conditions. Of the six support materials considered (6-12 mesh silica gel, Celite® R633, Celite® R632, Celite® R647, anion exchange resin, and Quartzel® felt), the diatomaceous earth supports (Celite® R633, R632 and R647) exhibited high enzymatic activity, were thermally stable, and possessed high sol-gel adhesion. From the three types of diatomaceous earth considered, Celite® R632 supported lipase sol-gels were identified as the most promising supported lipase sol-gels for methyl oleate production via transesterification. Upon further evaluation, the Celite® R632 lipase sol-gels were found to achieve high methyl oleate percent conversions, glycerol-water absorption was only significant at glycerol levels higher than 75%, and the immobilized lipase had high stability upon storage at 4°C for 1.5 years. To determine the effects of methanol and glycerol inhibition as well as temperature on the reaction kinetics, a ping-pong bi-bi kinetic model was developed and validated over a range of methanol concentrations and temperatures. The optimal methanol concentration for the conditions tested was in the range of 1.3 M to 2.0 M, and increased with increasing temperature. The model developed was consistent with the experimental data and confirmed that glycerol inhibition and the presence of products had significant effects on the reaction kinetics. The methyl oleate production capabilities of the Celite® supported lipase sol-gel were investigated using a packed bed reactor and compared with Novozym® 435 under similar operating conditions. A kinetic and mass transfer based model was developed for the reactor system using a novel efficiency correlation to account for the effect of glycerol on the enzymatic activity. Increasing the flow rate (1.4 mL/min to 20 mL/min) increased the reaction rate, presumably due to the reduction of the glycerol inhibition effect on the immobilized biocatalyst. The Celite® supported lipase sol-gel was found to have superior performance over Novozym® 435 both under batch stirred tank reaction conditions and in a packed bed reactor (83% conversion for Celite® sol-gel vs. 59% conversion for Novozym® 435 at 20 mL/min in the packed bed reactor). Based on the results obtained, Celite® supported lipase sol-gels exhibited good performance for the transesterification of triolein with methanol to produce methyl oleate in both batch and packed bed reactors, and warrant further exploration for the enzymatic production of biodiesel.

O hidrogênio é estudado como alternativa ao uso de combustíveis fósseis para geração de energia, uma vez que é um combustível renovável, apresenta alta concentração de energia por unidade de massa e não gera gases causadores do efeito estufa. Entre os processos de produção de hidrogênio destaca-se o processo fermentativo, pois é um processo de baixo custo quando comparado com outros processos e possibilita unir tratamento de efluente e geração de energia. Neste sentido, este trabalho teve como proposta estudar parâmetros envolvidos no processo de produção fermentativo do \'H IND.2\'. O trabalho envolveu três etapas. Na primeira etapa, foi estudada a produção de hidrogênio a partir de sacarose empregando reatores anaeróbios de leito fixo de fluxo ascendente. Na primeira fase, comparou-se o desempenho de diferentes matérias suportes (argila, carvão vegetal e polietileno) e tempos de detenção hidráulica (TDH) (0,5 e 2h). Na segunda fase, testaram-se diferentes porosidades (50, 75 e 91%) do leito de polietileno TDH de 0,5 h. Os resultados mostraram que TDHs menores e maiores porosidades promovem maiores e contínuas produções de \'H IND.2\'. Na segunda fase, avaliou-se a produção de \'H IND.2\' a partir de quatro inóculos: metanogênico tratamento termicamente e três provenientes de biomassa aderidas aos materiais suportes empregados na primeira etapa. Todos inóculos produziram \'H IND.2\'. Na terceira etapa, avaliou-se a viabilidade de produzir \'H IND.2\' a partir de diferentes águas residuárias (sacarose, esgoto sanitário, vinhaça e glicerina). Houve conversão de hidrogênio a partir de todas as águas residuárias e a vinhaça mostrou ser o efluente mais promissor para esta finalidade. As análises biológicas mostraram baixa diversidade de fungos e bactérias, porém todos associados com o processo de formação de \'H IND.2\'. A varredura dos parâmetros estudados neste trabalho proporcionou o entendimento do processo, assim como, o mapeamento das variáveis adequadas para o projeto e viabilidade da aplicação de reatores desenvolvidos para geração de hidrogênio. / The hydrogen obtained by fermentative production is studied as an alternative process to provide energy instead of fossil fuel application. Moreover, hydrogen is a renewable fuel, has high energy content per unit weight (122 kJ/g), generates clean energy without pollution and produces no greenhouse gases. The fermentative process has low cost when it is compared with traditional process and photosynthetic process, because hydrogen can be produced from wastewater by anaerobic treatment process. For that reason, the aim of this research was to study some parameters involved in the hydrogen production by fermentative process. Three steps were developed. In the first step, it was studied the hydrogen production from sucrose using up-flow anaerobic packed-bed reactor, this step was divide in two phases. In the first phase three support materials (clay beads, vegetal coal and polyethylene) and two hydraulic retention times (0.5 and 2 h) were tested. In the second phase three porosities (50, 75 and 91%) of polyethylene bed were tested. The results demonstrated that the low HRT and high porosities provided high hydrogen production, although, the support materials did not show significant difference in the hydrogen production and in the biomass developed. In the second phase, four inocula were used in order to produce hydrogen: thermal pre-treated methanogenic sludge; and the others three came from the reactors used in the first phase. All inocula were able to produce hydrogen. In the third step hydrogen production was obtained from three wastewaters (domestic wastewater, vinasse and glycerol) and a control (sucrose) in batch reactors. The wastewaters and control produced hydrogen and the vinasse showed the highest production. This research makes available the comprehension on the influence of the different parameters in processes projected for hydrogen production and it makes viable to apply in full-scale.

Modelos matemáticos oferecem grandes benefícios para a compreensão dos mecanismos envolvidos nos processos de tratamento de águas residuárias uma vez que fornecem interpretações e possibilitam previsões de desempenho, comparações de alternativas de tratamento, otimização de futuras plantas ou o aprimoramento das existentes, podendo subsidiar a elaboração de projetos em escala real. Em virtude disto, nesta pesquisa visou-se o desenvolvimento de um modelo bioquímico-matemático para descrever o processo de degradação da glicose em um reator anaeróbio de leito fixo com fluxo ascendente, com a resultante produção biológica de hidrogênio por meio do processo de fermentação. O desenvolvimento do modelo foi baseado em estudos sobre a cinética bioquímica e as características hidrodinâmicas do sistema. Os parâmetros de ajuste do modelo aos dados experimentais foram as constantes de velocidade das reações bioquímicas envolvidas na produção de hidrogênio. A calibração foi realizada manualmente buscando minimizar o desvio global. Para a determinação dos parâmetros foi utilizada a técnica de geração de números aleatórios com distribuição de freqüência uniforme e em seguida, o método de inversão de matrizes. O modelo matemático se revelou bastante adequado para a previsão do perfil de concentrações ao longo do reator, e possibilitou a representação das rotas de utilização da matéria orgânica. A reação de oxidação do ácido propiônico pelas bactérias acidogênicas produtoras de hidrogênio constitui a principal via de produção de \'H IND.2\' no sistema. / Mathematical models bring benefits to the understanding of mechanisms involved on wastewater treatment processes because they provide interpretations and make possible performance predictions, evaluation of design alternatives, optimization of future plants or the improvement to existing systems. Therefore, in this work a mathematical model to describe the glucose degradation process, with hydrogen production through the fermentation, in an upflow anaerobic packed-bed reactor is developed. The model equations were based on studies of biochemical kinetics and hydrodynamics features of the system. The parameters considered were the rates of the biochemical reactions involved in the hydrogen production. The calibration was made through the minimization of the global deviation. The parameters determination was obtained with the use of a technique of generation of aleatory numbers, and after that, the method of matrices inversion for the solution of the system of linear equations. The mathematical model developed showed to be adequate for the concentrations prediction along the reactor, and it made possible the representation of the routes of organic material utilization. The oxidation reaction of propionic acid is the main hydrogen production route in the reactor.

Chemical warfare agents are a toxic class of compounds that are incredibly harmful to human health. Methods of detoxification and decontamination currently exist, however they all suffer from problems that involve logistical transport or involve technologies that directly address liquid threats instead of vapors. One promising method of detoxification involves the oxidation of these compounds into less-harmful species. The relatively large chemical size and complexity of modern-day chemical warfare agents, however, precludes a straightforward analysis of the chemical transformations that take place on novel decontaminating materials. Additionally, a fundamental understanding of reaction mechanisms that occur on novel material surfaces is required before improved materials can be developed. To this end, the oxidation of three simpler, smaller organic molecules were studied over a variety of materials in order to build up a chemical understanding of the systems under study. The photoepoxidation of propene into propene oxide was observed to readily occur over an in-house developed dual titania-silica catalyst created by atomic layer deposition. The subsequent photoinduced degradation of produced propene oxide was observed to occur over the novel catalyst. Next, the oxidation of CO was studied over a Pt/TiO2 catalyst while in the presence of humidity. The addition of water was shown to enable an alternative, low energy pathway that closely followed the water gas shift, but ended upon the production of stable surface-bound formates. Gaseous oxygen was found to subsequently oxidize these surface formates into the full oxidation product, CO2. Next, the oxidation of methanol was studied over the same Pt/TiO2 catalyst. It was discovered that the water produced when methanol initially adsorbs to the catalyst surface is responsible for unlocking the oxidative capacity of the material. Finally, a custom packedbed reactor was designed and built that enabled unique experimental capabilities not yet available in commercial systems, and will be used in the future to directly test the oxidative capabilities of novel materials for chemical warfare agent destruction. / Doctor of Philosophy / The chemical interactions and reactions that occur between gases and surfaces are incredibly important for a multitude of technologies employed by governments, militaries, and citizens alike. The precise methods in which these gases interact with materials of interest determine whether said material can be used in a catalytic fashion. Much like how an automobile catalytic converter does not have to be replaced each time the vehicle is started; a catalyst is able to be used repeatedly without loss of function. Catalysts in general are unique in that they function to create or allow for chemical reactions to proceed through alternative, lower energy pathways that are more likely to occur under milder environmental conditions. In order to understand the chemical reactions that occur on a catalyst, a combination of specialized spectroscopic methods was used that allowed for tracking the precise chemical bonds that were formed or broken during reaction. A few different model chemical reactions are explored in this work, ranging from the conversion of carbon monoxide into CO2, and the oxidation of methanol, a small alcohol commonly found in fuel cells. The experimental techniques employed herein allowed for precise chemical mechanisms to be tracked, and the information gained will certainly be useful for the design of next-generation materials by future research.

The world energy supply and demand, together with limited available resources have resulted in the need to develop alternative energy sources to ensure sustainable and expanding economies. Hydrogen is being considered a viable option with particular application to fuel cells. The Hybrid Sulphur cycle has been identified as a process to produce clean hydrogen (carbon free process) and can have economic benefits when coupled to nuclear reactors (High Temperature Gas Reactor) or solar heaters for the supply of the required process energy. The sulphur trioxide decomposition reactor producing sulphur dioxide for the electrolytic cells in a closed loop system has been examined, but it is clear that development with respect to a more durable active catalyst in a reactor operating under severe conditions needs to be investigated. A suitable sulphur trioxide reactor needs to operate at a high temperature with efficient heating in view of the endothermic reaction, and has to consist of special materials of construction to handle the very corrosive reactants and products. This investigation was undertaken to address (1) the synthesis, characterisation, reactivity and stability of a suitable catalyst (2), determination the reaction rate of the chosen catalyst with a suitable micro reactor (3) construction and evaluation of a packed bed reactor for the required reaction, and (4) the development and validation of a reactor model using computational fluid dynamics with associated chemical reactions. A supported catalyst consisting of 0.5 wt% platinum and 0.5 wt% palladium on rutile (TiO2, titania) was prepared by the sintering of an anatase/rutile supported catalyst with the same noble metal composition, synthesized according to an incipient impregnation procedure using cylindrical porous pellets (±1.7 mm diameter and ±5 mm long). Characterization involving: surface area, porosity, metal composition, - dispersion, - particle size, support phase and sulphur content was carried out and it was found from reactivity determinations that the sintered catalyst, which was very different from the synthesized catalyst, had an acceptable activity and stability which was suitable for further evaluation. A micro pellet reactor was constructed and operated and consisted of a small number of pellets (five) placed apart from each other in a two-stage quartz reactor with sulphur trioxide generated from sulphuric acid in the first stage and the conversion of sulphur trioxide in the second stage, respectively. Attention was only confined to the second stage involving the conversion of sulphur trioxide with the supported catalyst. The overall reaction kinetics of the pellets involving momentum, heat and mass transfer and chemical reaction was evaluated and validated with constants obtained from literature and with an unknown reaction rate equation for which constants were obtained by regression. As result of the complexity of the flow, mass and heat transfer fields in the micro pellet reactor it was necessary to use a CFD model with chemical reactions which was accomplished with a commercial code COMSOL MultiPhysics® 4.3b. A reversible reaction rate equation was used and a least squares regression procedure was used to evaluate the activation energy and pre-exponential factor. The activation energy obtained for the first order forward reaction was higher than values obtained from literature for a first order reaction rate (irreversible reaction) for the platinum group metals on titania catalysts. Detailed analyses of the velocity, temperature and concentration profile revealed the importance of using a complex model for determination of the reaction parameters. A fixed bed reactor system consisting of a sulphuric acid vaporizer, a single reactor tube (1 m length, 25 mm OD) heated with a surrounding electrical furnace followed, by a series of condensers for the analysis of the products was constructed and operated. Three process variables were investigated, which included the inlet temperature, the weight hourly velocity and the residence time in order to assess the performance of the reactor and generate results for developing a model. The results obtained included the wall and reactor centreline temperature profiles together with average conversion. As a result of the complexity of the chemistry and the phases present containing the products from the reactor a detailed calculation was done using vapour/liquid equilibrium with the accompanying mass balance (Aspen-Plus®) to determine the distribution of sulphur trioxide, sulphur dioxide, oxygen and steam. A mass balance was successfully completed with analyses including SO2 with a GC, O2 with a paramagnetic cell analyser, acid/base titrations with sodium hydroxide, SO2 titrations with iodine and measurement of condensables (mass and volume). The results obtained showed that a steady state (constant conversion) was obtained after approximately six hours and that it was possible to obtain sulphur trioxide conversion approaching equilibrium conditions for bed lengths of 100 mm with very low weight hourly space velocities. A heterogeneous 2D model consisting of the relevant continuity, momentum, heat transfer and mass transfer and the reaction rate equation determined in this investigation was developed and solved with the use of the commercial code COMSOL MultiPhysics® 4.3b with an appropriate mesh structure. The geometry of the packed bed (geometry) was accomplished by generating a randomly packed bed with a commercial package DigiPac™. The model predicted results that agreed with experimental results with conversions up to 56%, obtained over the following ranges: weight hourly space velocity equal to 15 h-1, temperatures between 903 K and 1053 K and residence times between 0.1 and 0.07 seconds. The post-processing results were most useful for assessing the effect of the controlling mechanisms and associated parameters. / PhD (Chemical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The world energy supply and demand, together with limited available resources have resulted in the need to develop alternative energy sources to ensure sustainable and expanding economies. Hydrogen is being considered a viable option with particular application to fuel cells. The Hybrid Sulphur cycle has been identified as a process to produce clean hydrogen (carbon free process) and can have economic benefits when coupled to nuclear reactors (High Temperature Gas Reactor) or solar heaters for the supply of the required process energy. The sulphur trioxide decomposition reactor producing sulphur dioxide for the electrolytic cells in a closed loop system has been examined, but it is clear that development with respect to a more durable active catalyst in a reactor operating under severe conditions needs to be investigated. A suitable sulphur trioxide reactor needs to operate at a high temperature with efficient heating in view of the endothermic reaction, and has to consist of special materials of construction to handle the very corrosive reactants and products. This investigation was undertaken to address (1) the synthesis, characterisation, reactivity and stability of a suitable catalyst (2), determination the reaction rate of the chosen catalyst with a suitable micro reactor (3) construction and evaluation of a packed bed reactor for the required reaction, and (4) the development and validation of a reactor model using computational fluid dynamics with associated chemical reactions. A supported catalyst consisting of 0.5 wt% platinum and 0.5 wt% palladium on rutile (TiO2, titania) was prepared by the sintering of an anatase/rutile supported catalyst with the same noble metal composition, synthesized according to an incipient impregnation procedure using cylindrical porous pellets (±1.7 mm diameter and ±5 mm long). Characterization involving: surface area, porosity, metal composition, - dispersion, - particle size, support phase and sulphur content was carried out and it was found from reactivity determinations that the sintered catalyst, which was very different from the synthesized catalyst, had an acceptable activity and stability which was suitable for further evaluation. A micro pellet reactor was constructed and operated and consisted of a small number of pellets (five) placed apart from each other in a two-stage quartz reactor with sulphur trioxide generated from sulphuric acid in the first stage and the conversion of sulphur trioxide in the second stage, respectively. Attention was only confined to the second stage involving the conversion of sulphur trioxide with the supported catalyst. The overall reaction kinetics of the pellets involving momentum, heat and mass transfer and chemical reaction was evaluated and validated with constants obtained from literature and with an unknown reaction rate equation for which constants were obtained by regression. As result of the complexity of the flow, mass and heat transfer fields in the micro pellet reactor it was necessary to use a CFD model with chemical reactions which was accomplished with a commercial code COMSOL MultiPhysics® 4.3b. A reversible reaction rate equation was used and a least squares regression procedure was used to evaluate the activation energy and pre-exponential factor. The activation energy obtained for the first order forward reaction was higher than values obtained from literature for a first order reaction rate (irreversible reaction) for the platinum group metals on titania catalysts. Detailed analyses of the velocity, temperature and concentration profile revealed the importance of using a complex model for determination of the reaction parameters. A fixed bed reactor system consisting of a sulphuric acid vaporizer, a single reactor tube (1 m length, 25 mm OD) heated with a surrounding electrical furnace followed, by a series of condensers for the analysis of the products was constructed and operated. Three process variables were investigated, which included the inlet temperature, the weight hourly velocity and the residence time in order to assess the performance of the reactor and generate results for developing a model. The results obtained included the wall and reactor centreline temperature profiles together with average conversion. As a result of the complexity of the chemistry and the phases present containing the products from the reactor a detailed calculation was done using vapour/liquid equilibrium with the accompanying mass balance (Aspen-Plus®) to determine the distribution of sulphur trioxide, sulphur dioxide, oxygen and steam. A mass balance was successfully completed with analyses including SO2 with a GC, O2 with a paramagnetic cell analyser, acid/base titrations with sodium hydroxide, SO2 titrations with iodine and measurement of condensables (mass and volume). The results obtained showed that a steady state (constant conversion) was obtained after approximately six hours and that it was possible to obtain sulphur trioxide conversion approaching equilibrium conditions for bed lengths of 100 mm with very low weight hourly space velocities. A heterogeneous 2D model consisting of the relevant continuity, momentum, heat transfer and mass transfer and the reaction rate equation determined in this investigation was developed and solved with the use of the commercial code COMSOL MultiPhysics® 4.3b with an appropriate mesh structure. The geometry of the packed bed (geometry) was accomplished by generating a randomly packed bed with a commercial package DigiPac™. The model predicted results that agreed with experimental results with conversions up to 56%, obtained over the following ranges: weight hourly space velocity equal to 15 h-1, temperatures between 903 K and 1053 K and residence times between 0.1 and 0.07 seconds. The post-processing results were most useful for assessing the effect of the controlling mechanisms and associated parameters. / PhD (Chemical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo verificar a potencialidade do óleo de macaúba como matéria-prima para síntese de biodiesel pela rota enzimática. Utilizou-se como proposta a transesterificação do óleo de macaúba com etanol mediada pela enzima lipase em fluxo contínuo empregando reator de leito fixo, visando obter amostras de biodiesel com propriedades adequadas à sua utilização como biocombustível. A enzima selecionada para desenvolvimento experimental foi a lipase microbiana de Burkholderia cepacia imobilizada em suporte híbrido não comercial (SiO2-PVA). Foram testados reatores de leito fixo de um estágio e dois estágios. A primeira etapa do trabalho foi direcionada para testes visando avaliar a influência da razão entre a altura (l) e o diâmetro (d) do reator de leito fixo na etanólise do óleo de macaúba. As reações foram operadas continuamente por 20 dias, utilizando óleo: etanol numa razão molar de 1:12 na ausência de solvente e tempo espacial de 14h. Dois reatores foram testados: Reator A (l = 55 mm e d = 15 mm) e Reator B (l = 210 mm e d = 14 mm), apresentando relação geométrica (l/d) de 3,7 e 15, respectivamente. Os dados obtidos indicaram influência das dimensões da coluna empacotada na produção de biodiesel e nas condições testadas, a maior razão altura/ diâmetro não interferiu na transferência de massa do fluido através da coluna. O melhor desempenho foi obtido no sistema experimental que empregou o reator B, atingindo 89,7 ± 4,8% de rendimento e 40,4 ± 2,2 mgéster.gmeio -1.h--1 de produtividade. Na sequência o trabalho foi direcionado para a execução de testes empregando reatores de leito fixo (Reator B) duplo estágio incorporando uma coluna empacotada com resina catiônica (Lewatit® GF 202) para remover o glicerol formado e proporcionar um incremento na formação de ésteres de etila em relação ao primeiro estágio. O desempenho do reator foi avaliado para diferentes tempos espaciais (10 a 16h), mantendo fixas as demais condições operacionais (substrato constituído de óleo de macaúba e etanol na razão molar óleo: etanol de 1:12 e temperatura de 50 ºC). O funcionamento do sistema foi comprovado quantitativamente para tempos espaciais no sistema igual a 16h, resultando em valores médios de produtividade de 36,7 ??2,4 mgéster.gmeio -1.h-1com perdas mínimas de matéria-prima (rendimento de transesterificação = 96,3 ??2,1%), sem redução de eficiência durante 25 dias de operação. As amostras de biodiesel purificadas apresentaram baixos teores de monoacilgliceróis (3,8%) ausência de diacilgliceróis e viscosidade cinemática média de 5,8 ± 0,3 mm2.s-1, atendendo as normas vigentes pela resolução ANP n°14/2012, que estabelece viscosidade cinemática do B100 na faixa entre 3,0 - 6,0 mm2.s-1. O biocatalisador foi estável quanto suas características morfológicas e catalíticas, revelando tempo de meia-vida de 423 h. Desta forma, a configuração do sistema reacional constituído por reator de leito fixo duplo estágio com a remoção simultânea de glicerol tem grande potencial para atingir elevado rendimento de transesterificação, aumentando a produtividade de biodiesel e consequentemente diminuindo o custo do processo industrial. Em geral, os resultados foram promissores e mostraram o potencial do óleo de macaúba para ser usado como matéria-prima para a produção de biodiesel em fluxo contínuo. / The present study aimed at assessing the potential of macaw palm oil as a raw material for the synthesis of biodiesel by enzymatic route. The proposed experimental was to develop a process that was able to transesterify the macaw palm oil with ethanol by immobilized lipase in packed bed reactor under continuous flow, in order to obtain biodiesel having suitable properties to be used as a fuel. The enzyme chosen for the development of this work was the microbial lipase from Burkholderia cepacia immobilized on non-commercial hybrid matrix SiO2-PVA. Single and two stages packed bed reactors were tested. Initially the influence of the reactor dimensions and ratio between height (l) and diameter (d) in the performance of the ethanolysis of macaw palm oil was assessed. Tests were carried out using two reactors (A and B) having different geometric relations: Reactor A (l = 55 mm and d = 15 mm) and Reactor B (l = 210 mm and d = 14) which corresponded to height/diameter (l/d = 3.7 and l/d = 15), respectively. Runs were performed continuously for 20 days using substrate containing oil to ethanol molar ratio of 1:12 in a solvent-free system and fixed space time of 14h. Data suggested that the dimensions of the packed column had a slight influence on the biodiesel production and under the conditions tested, the highest relation (l/d = 15) did not affect the fluid mass transfer throughout the reactor column. Under these conditions runs carried out in the reactor B provided average yields of 89.7 ± 4.8% and productivities of 40.4 ± 2.2 mgester?g-1?h-1. Following this, a two-stage packed bed reactor incorporating a column with cationic resin (Lewatit® GF 202) to remove the glycerol formed as by-product was used. The reactor performance was quantified for four different flow rates corresponded to spatial times from 10 to 16 h. For each condition, the influence of spatial times in the ethyl esters formation, transesterification yields and productivities were determined. The reactor operation was demonstrated for spatial time igual to 16 h, attaining ethyl ester formation of 58.1?2.1 wt%, transesterification yields of 96.3 ??2.1% and productivities of 36.7 ??2.4 mgester?g-1?h-1 with no significant reduction in the efficiency during 25 days. The purified samples showed residual levels of monoglycerides (3.8 wt %), absence of diglycerides and average viscosity values of 5.8 mm2/s which can be considered appropriated according to Brazilian resolution ANP n° 14/2012. The immobilized lipase on SiO2-PVA was found to be stable regarding its morphological and catalytic characteristics, showing half-life time (t1/2) higher than 423 h. Therefore, the continuous packed-bed reactor connected in series with simultaneous glycerol removal has a great potential to attain high level of transesterification yields, raising biodiesel productivity, consequently decreasing industrial process cost. Overall, the results were promising and showed the potential of macaw palm oil to be used as feedstock for biodiesel production under continuous flow.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo a produção de hidrogênio em reator anaeróbio de leito fixo com fluxo ascendente utilizando-se efluente de indústria de refrigerantes. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que a água residuária semi-sintética simulando efluente de indústria de refrigerantes tem um bom potencial de geração de hidrogênio. Dados da operação dos dois reatores utilizados mostraram que o maior rendimento foi alcançado pelo reator operado sem a adição de meio contendo nutrientes (R2), pois este foi capaz de atingir 4,2 mol \'H IND.2\'/mol de substrato em contraste com 2,5 mol \'H IND.2\'/mol de substrato, obtida pelo reator (R1), cujo afluente continha suplementação nutricional. Constatou-se que o reator operado sem adição de nutrientes (R2) apresentou continuidade na produção de hidrogênio, fato que não ocorreu com o reator R1, que exibiu uma produção efêmera e significativamente inferior. O melhor desempenho na velocidade de produção de hidrogênio e porcentagem do mesmo na composição do biogás também foi observado para o reator R2, que atingiu 0,52 L/h.L e 18,9% de \'H IND.2\' contra 0,28 L/h.L e 2,1% de \'H IND.2\' obtidos pelo reator com suplementação nutricional (R1). Após esta primeira etapa comparativa em que os reatores foram operados simultaneamente com TDH teórico de 0,5 h, prosseguiu-se apenas com a operação do reator R2, porém com tempo de detenção hidráulica teórico de 1 h, o que induziu uma maior conversão do substrato a ácidos e álcoois, mudou as características hidrodinâmicas do leito e afetou negativamente a produção de hidrogênio. / This work was aimed on hydrogen production in an upflow anaerobic packed-bed reactor fed with soft-drink wastewater. The results obtained show that the semisynthetic soft-drink wastewater has a good hydrogen generation potential. Data obtained from the operation of both reactors indicated that the reactor operated without the addition of medium containing macro and micronutrients (R2) provided higher hydrogen yield (4,2 mol \'H IND.2\'/mol of substrate) as compared to the reactor (R1) operated with the addition of nutrient medium, which achieved lower hydrogen production yield (2,5 mol \'H IND.2\'/mol of substrate). It was observed that the reactor operated without the addition of nutrients (R2) showed continuous hydrogen production, while the reactor R1 exhibited a short period of production and lower amounts of hydrogen. Better hydrogen production rate and percentage in the biogas were also observed for the reactor R2, which achieved 0,52 L/h.L and 18,9% of \'H IND.2\' against 0,28 L/h.L and 2,1% of \'H IND.2\' obtained by the reactor with nutrient addition (R1). After operation with HDT of 0,5 h, the reactor R2 was operated with theoretical HDT of 1 h. Under this condition, the substrate was mainly converted to acids and solvents, negatively affecting the hydrogen production and the hydrodynamic pattern of the reactor.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo verificar a potencialidade do óleo de macaúba como matéria-prima para síntese de biodiesel pela rota enzimática. Utilizou-se como proposta a transesterificação do óleo de macaúba com etanol mediada pela enzima lipase em fluxo contínuo empregando reator de leito fixo, visando obter amostras de biodiesel com propriedades adequadas à sua utilização como biocombustível. A enzima selecionada para desenvolvimento experimental foi a lipase microbiana de Burkholderia cepacia imobilizada em suporte híbrido não comercial (SiO2-PVA). Foram testados reatores de leito fixo de um estágio e dois estágios. A primeira etapa do trabalho foi direcionada para testes visando avaliar a influência da razão entre a altura (l) e o diâmetro (d) do reator de leito fixo na etanólise do óleo de macaúba. As reações foram operadas continuamente por 20 dias, utilizando óleo: etanol numa razão molar de 1:12 na ausência de solvente e tempo espacial de 14h. Dois reatores foram testados: Reator A (l = 55 mm e d = 15 mm) e Reator B (l = 210 mm e d = 14 mm), apresentando relação geométrica (l/d) de 3,7 e 15, respectivamente. Os dados obtidos indicaram influência das dimensões da coluna empacotada na produção de biodiesel e nas condições testadas, a maior razão altura/ diâmetro não interferiu na transferência de massa do fluido através da coluna. O melhor desempenho foi obtido no sistema experimental que empregou o reator B, atingindo 89,7 ± 4,8% de rendimento e 40,4 ± 2,2 mgéster.gmeio -1.h--1 de produtividade. Na sequência o trabalho foi direcionado para a execução de testes empregando reatores de leito fixo (Reator B) duplo estágio incorporando uma coluna empacotada com resina catiônica (Lewatit® GF 202) para remover o glicerol formado e proporcionar um incremento na formação de ésteres de etila em relação ao primeiro estágio. O desempenho do reator foi avaliado para diferentes tempos espaciais (10 a 16h), mantendo fixas as demais condições operacionais (substrato constituído de óleo de macaúba e etanol na razão molar óleo: etanol de 1:12 e temperatura de 50 ºC). O funcionamento do sistema foi comprovado quantitativamente para tempos espaciais no sistema igual a 16h, resultando em valores médios de produtividade de 36,7 ??2,4 mgéster.gmeio -1.h-1com perdas mínimas de matéria-prima (rendimento de transesterificação = 96,3 ??2,1%), sem redução de eficiência durante 25 dias de operação. As amostras de biodiesel purificadas apresentaram baixos teores de monoacilgliceróis (3,8%) ausência de diacilgliceróis e viscosidade cinemática média de 5,8 ± 0,3 mm2.s-1, atendendo as normas vigentes pela resolução ANP n°14/2012, que estabelece viscosidade cinemática do B100 na faixa entre 3,0 - 6,0 mm2.s-1. O biocatalisador foi estável quanto suas características morfológicas e catalíticas, revelando tempo de meia-vida de 423 h. Desta forma, a configuração do sistema reacional constituído por reator de leito fixo duplo estágio com a remoção simultânea de glicerol tem grande potencial para atingir elevado rendimento de transesterificação, aumentando a produtividade de biodiesel e consequentemente diminuindo o custo do processo industrial. Em geral, os resultados foram promissores e mostraram o potencial do óleo de macaúba para ser usado como matéria-prima para a produção de biodiesel em fluxo contínuo. / The present study aimed at assessing the potential of macaw palm oil as a raw material for the synthesis of biodiesel by enzymatic route. The proposed experimental was to develop a process that was able to transesterify the macaw palm oil with ethanol by immobilized lipase in packed bed reactor under continuous flow, in order to obtain biodiesel having suitable properties to be used as a fuel. The enzyme chosen for the development of this work was the microbial lipase from Burkholderia cepacia immobilized on non-commercial hybrid matrix SiO2-PVA. Single and two stages packed bed reactors were tested. Initially the influence of the reactor dimensions and ratio between height (l) and diameter (d) in the performance of the ethanolysis of macaw palm oil was assessed. Tests were carried out using two reactors (A and B) having different geometric relations: Reactor A (l = 55 mm and d = 15 mm) and Reactor B (l = 210 mm and d = 14) which corresponded to height/diameter (l/d = 3.7 and l/d = 15), respectively. Runs were performed continuously for 20 days using substrate containing oil to ethanol molar ratio of 1:12 in a solvent-free system and fixed space time of 14h. Data suggested that the dimensions of the packed column had a slight influence on the biodiesel production and under the conditions tested, the highest relation (l/d = 15) did not affect the fluid mass transfer throughout the reactor column. Under these conditions runs carried out in the reactor B provided average yields of 89.7 ± 4.8% and productivities of 40.4 ± 2.2 mgester?g-1?h-1. Following this, a two-stage packed bed reactor incorporating a column with cationic resin (Lewatit® GF 202) to remove the glycerol formed as by-product was used. The reactor performance was quantified for four different flow rates corresponded to spatial times from 10 to 16 h. For each condition, the influence of spatial times in the ethyl esters formation, transesterification yields and productivities were determined. The reactor operation was demonstrated for spatial time igual to 16 h, attaining ethyl ester formation of 58.1?2.1 wt%, transesterification yields of 96.3 ??2.1% and productivities of 36.7 ??2.4 mgester?g-1?h-1 with no significant reduction in the efficiency during 25 days. The purified samples showed residual levels of monoglycerides (3.8 wt %), absence of diglycerides and average viscosity values of 5.8 mm2/s which can be considered appropriated according to Brazilian resolution ANP n° 14/2012. The immobilized lipase on SiO2-PVA was found to be stable regarding its morphological and catalytic characteristics, showing half-life time (t1/2) higher than 423 h. Therefore, the continuous packed-bed reactor connected in series with simultaneous glycerol removal has a great potential to attain high level of transesterification yields, raising biodiesel productivity, consequently decreasing industrial process cost. Overall, the results were promising and showed the potential of macaw palm oil to be used as feedstock for biodiesel production under continuous flow.