The impact of parents' marital conflict and parent-child conflict on the adjustment of children is well documented. Given the theoretical and empirical data to support a relationship between experiencing interparental and parent-child conflict during childhood and later conflict in romantic relationships, it is important to investigate the potential mechanisms that operate in this relationship. Thus, the present study sought to investigate the extent to which attributions of conflict mediate the relationship between experiencing interparental and parent-child conflict and later conflict in a romantic relationship. Results were based on the responses of emerging adults (190 males and 473 females) enrolled in psychology courses at a large southeastern university. Compared to males, females reported experiencing lower levels of permissive parenting, as well as higher levels of interparental psychological aggression, maternal emotional availability, attachment with mothers and peers, and overt violence in their current romantic relationships. Consistent with extant research, significant correlations were found among interparental conflict, parent-child conflict, attributions of conflict, parenting style, emotional availability of parents, attachment, and conflict with current romantic partners. Regression analyses (for males and females separately) suggested that different types of interparental and parent-child conflict predict greater hostile attributions and greater levels of conflict with current romantic partners. Although attributions of conflict predicted conflict with current romantic partners, conflict attributions did not mediate the relationship between family conflict and conflict with current romantic partners. These findings emphasized the importance of research investigating the long-term cognitive and emotional effects of family conflict and violence in order to provide a context for understanding the development of risk and resilience factors for relationship violence.

本研究目的係為探討新移民母親參與親子共讀團體後，其在自我認同、親子關係，以及對家庭關係上之變化。本研究採質性為主，量化為輔的方法。質性研究以深度訪談和參與觀察方式；量化研究以前-後測之親子共讀問卷瞭解新移民母親在分數上的變化。九位受訪者以立意和滾雪球抽樣取得。主要研究結果如下： 在「原生家庭對新移民女性在教養子女的影響」方面：新移民女性作為孩子的主要照顧者，並非為全職家務工作者，且新移民女性與台灣先生、夫家和原生娘家的相處情形，會受到原生家庭中母親與父親及上一代公婆、娘家的互動模式影響；在「自我認同的轉變」方面：新移民女性渴望得到來自夫家或社會的認同，因此，她們對於養育或管教子女的自我要求極為嚴苛，孩子的成就代表她們人生的成功。並用真誠信任且開放的態度去面對團體中的領導者、協同領導者和其他團體成員時，其越能得到較多的社會支持與正向感受；在「提昇親子關係」方面，從質化與量化加以說明：質化方面：當新移民親子溝通和互動關係變好，在教養上就會順利許多。量化方面：研究採個人之自我分數對照方式，深入瞭解每位受訪者的改變。在「家庭關係和諧」方面：先生非常支持太太上課學習，並願意建立有效夫妻溝通模式，此也影響新移民女性跟夫家和娘家的互動關係。 最後，針對新移民女性及家庭的需求對實務工作、服務體系及未來研究等三方面提出相關建議，作為未來實務工作、政策制定以及研究之參考。 / Abstract The research discusses the change of self-recognition, parent-child relationship, and family relationship after new immigrant mothers join in the parent-child reading group. This qualitative research, deep interview and observation, is assisted with quantitative method, pre- and post- test parent-child reading questionnaire to understand the score changing of new immigrant mothers. 9 respondents were selected from judgment and snowball sampling. The main results are as follows: In the aspect of “the influence of original family on the new immigrant female when raising child”: new immigrant female is the main care taker of the child, not full time house chores doer. Also, the living situation of the new immigrant female with their husband, in-laws, and original family is affected by the interaction between their parents from the original family and the in-laws and the original family of last generation. In the aspect of “the changing of self-recognition”: new immigrant female long for recognition from the husband’s family or the society. Therefore, they are hard on themselves in raising or disciplining the child. The achievement of the child is their life success. When they face the leader, the co-leader, and other group members with sincere, trust, and open attitude, they can have more positive social support and feeling. We explain the aspect of “increasing parent-child relationship” qualitatively and quantitatively. In qualitatively, when the communication and interaction between the parent and child of the new immigrant is better, the raising and teaching will be smoother. In quantitatively, the research contrast personal scores and deeply understand the changing of each respondent. In the aspect of “family harmony”: the husband supports the wife to learn and is willing to build effectively couple communication model, which has also influence the interaction of the new immigrant female with the in-laws and the original family. Finally, we propose related suggestions on the need of the new immigrant female and the family in the aspects of practical works, service system, and future research as the reference for future practical work, policy stipulation, and research.

The interaction between parent, child and book during story-book reading is considered as one of the fundamental instruments required for children to acquire the important elements needed to learn how to read. Parents of grade one children are unsure of their new role in the reading development of their children because their children enter a new phase in their literacy development and reading becomes the centre of their learning activities. The main aim of this research is to compare and describe how parents of grade one children without learning disabilities and parents of children with learning disabilities, perceive their children’s participation in home reading activities. Thirty biological parents or legal guardians of grade one children without learning disabilities and ten of grade one children with learning disabilities were used to complete a questionnaire. The results indicated that although children without learning disabilities and children with learning disabilities have similar exposure to home literacy activities, children without learning disabilities become more fluent and efficient readers than their peers with learning disabilities. Children without learning disabilities prefer to be actively involved in the story-book reading act with their parents, whereas children with learning disabilities tend to be more passive and they prefer to engage less in reading activities due to their reading difficulties. The study highlights the importance of story-book reading for grade one children in both groups, as well as independent reading of story-books by these children. Suggestions for further research are provided. / Dissertation (MA (Augmentative and Alternative Communication))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Centre for Augmentative and Alternative Communication (CAAC) / MA / Unrestricted

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the developmental outcomes of Chinese American children's social competence in their transition to elementary school. In this study, I used a mixed-methods research design. The first part of the study was a secondary analysis of data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort. I examined cultural differences in the effects of parental warmth, parental SES, parent-child communication, and children's participation in peer-oriented structured extracurricular activities on the social development of European American and Chinese American children. For the second part of the study, I developed questions based on the findings of the quantitative analysis and conducted interviews to further explore how Chinese immigrant mothers' parenting beliefs and practices contributed to their children's development of social competence. The results showed that in Chinese immigrant families, parental SES influenced parent-child communication, which in turn promoted children's social competence. Parental SES, but not parental warmth, predicted their children's participation in peer-oriented structured extracurricular activities. Years of stay in the U.S. positively predicted children's participation in peer-oriented structured extracurricular activities, while it negatively predicted parent-child communication in Chinese immigrant families. The qualitative data suggested that Chinese immigrant mothers facilitated their children's social development by giving them verbal guidance for peer problems, encouraging conversations at home, and serving as role models for their children. Children's activity participation was restricted by the affordability of activities and parents' ability to provide transportation for their children. The Chinese immigrant mothers perceived taking on daily responsibilities and spending quality time together with their children as ways to express love toward them. These mothers' childrearing practices were influenced by the generational gap and acculturation. This study broadens our understanding of Chinese American children's development of social competence in their transition to formal schooling. It contributes new knowledge about 1) cultural differences in the effects of parental warmth and SES on parent-child communication; 2) the influences of parental SES on parent-child communication and Chinese American children's participation in peer-oriented structured extracurricular activities; and 3) the effect of years of stay in the U.S. on parent-child communication in Chinese immigrant families. / text

The aims of this research were to 1) demonstrate the validity of using a personally-worn micro-camcorder (PWMC) method to assess in-store parent-child food-purchasing interactions and environmental factors related to these behaviors; 2) examine the relationship between child at-home TV-exposure, home food availability/accessibility, parent dietary modeling, and child-feeding style with the healthfulness of child in-store food purchasing requests; and 3) examine the relationship between parent weight status, parent diet quality, food purchasing intentions, perceived relative cost of healthy food, and the use of nutrition facts labels with the healthfulness of parent responses to child in-store food purchasing requests. A total sample of 40 parent-child dyads completed the study. Parents were a mean age of 36.5 years (±6.3), and children were a mean age of 3.8 years (±1.1). Dyads were met at their usual grocery store and shopping time. Children wore a micro-camcorder or eButton on a hat to capture what they saw. Parents also completed a questionnaire about nutrition behaviors and the home food environment based on validated questions from the literature. Coded personally worn micro-camcorder (PWMC) data were highly correlated (rho = 0.345-0.911, p<0.01) with in-person observational data for assessing in-store behavioral and environmental factors, and the method demonstrated a high degree of reliability for assessing purchasing decisions compared to receipt data (Cohen's kappa = 0.787). Also, inter-rater reliability for assessing environmental/behavioral variables ranged from moderate to almost perfect (Cohen's kappa = 0.466-0.937). Children whose parents reported high levels of unhealthy dietary modeling had lower odds of a food request being healthy (OR=0.50, P=0.021), and having parents who report non-directive child-feeding had increased odds of a request being healthy (OR=1.66, P=0.028). Healthy weight parents were more likely to make healthy responses to child food purchasing requests than overweight/obese parents (OR=2.06, P=0.022). Behavioral interventions that seek to improve the healthfulness of food purchasing in families with young children should include components to promote non-directive feeding styles, discourage unhealthful dietary modeling, provide additional resources to target overweight/obese parents' responses to child requests, and use the PWMC method for efficient measurement of these behaviors. / text

This document proposes a study to ascertain if a relationship exists between levels of child and parent anxiety symptoms during an intervention designed to decrease anxiety in youth. This document systemically describes family variables related to anxiety in youth at the individual, parent-child, marital, whole family, and extra familial subsystem levels, in addition to previous research analyzing parental anxiety and the direction of change between child and parent anxiety during youth-focused interventions. The study involves gathering anxiety symptom data from parent and child participants at 14 time points and analyzing it using dependent samples t-test, regression, and ANOVA repeated measure analyses. These analyses serve to answer the research questions of whether child and parent anxiety symptoms improve in a youth-focused CBT intervention for anxiety from pre- to post-treatment, whether there exists a significant relationship between the severity of anxiety symptoms in youth and parents surrounding a youth-focused anxiety intervention, and whether this relationship is consistent. / text

Charles Dickens’s David Copperfield abounds with fatherless and motherless children, whose development into adolescence and adulthood is strongly affected by the parenting skills of the remaining parent. This essay studies different parenting and educational practices in the novel to see their impact on the behaviour and personality of the children. In Victorian England, two opposing views of childhood flourished: the Puritan one believing in childhood depravity, and the Romantic view based on childhood innocence. In addition, there were gender differences in upbringing stemming from the middle-class cult of domesticity as well as differences based on class distinctions. While Dickens seems to accept moral firmness, the Victorian ideal of manhood and womanhood, as the main goal of upbringing, he appears to disagree with Victorian child management practices. This essay shows the deficiencies and negative outcomes of the parenting styles based on the two opposing moral views, depicted in Mr. Murdstone’s Puritan discipline and Mrs. Steerforth’s parenting, which reflects the Romantic view of the child.  On the basis of the negative consequences of these two extremes, Dickens stresses the importance of a sound view of the child exemplified by Aunt Betsey’s loving discipline accompanied by guidance and responsibility, as well as by the educational practices in Doctor Strong’s school. Furthermore, this Victorian Bildungsroman emphasises the importance of a confidential loving relationship between the guardian and the child as well as proper education and social conditioning.

Background: Behaviour difficulties are one of the commonest problems for which parents seek professional advice. Behaviour difficulties in early childhood are associated with poorer educational and social outcomes in later life (Loeber & Dishion, 1983). The importance of early intervention and preventative work to support behaviour difficulties has been stressed in the literature and is a priority in the government’s strategy for promoting positive outcomes for children. It is now generally accepted that parenting programmes (PPs) are an effective mechanism for supporting children with behaviour difficulties. A review of the literature suggests that while there are numerous evaluations of PPs there is limited evidence of PPs that are successful outside of a clinic setting and even less evidence on particular aspects of PPs and how parents view them. Aims: The main aim of this research was to explore a community based PP (the Holding Hands Group Programme (HHGP)) in terms of both its outcomes and the perceptions of the parents involved. The aim of paper one was to investigate whether families who undergo the HHGP, notice any improvement in child behaviour, parental stress and parental confidence. A second aim was to compare the HHGP to the previously evaluated Holding Hands Individual Programme (HHIP). The aim of paper two was to examine the process elements of the Holding Hands Group Programme (HHGP), seeking new insights and a detailed descriptive portrayal of how parents experience the HHGP. Methods: The study utilised a pragmatic approach to evaluation, with mixed methods and differing methodologies. Paper 1 involved a fixed quasi-experimental design using a pre-test, post-test single group evaluation. Outcome data was gathered from 34 parental responses to a range of psychometric measures completed on each of three occasions. Paper 2 involved semi-structured interviews being carried out with 15 parents prior to, and on completion of, the HHGP. The interviews focused on parent’s experiences of the programme and what they liked/disliked. Results: Paper 1: At the start of the HHGP parents typically reported high levels of intensity of behaviour, behaviour that was a problem and stress levels. They also reported low levels of parental confidence. By the end of the HHGP parents reported significantly increased confidence and significantly reduced stress, intensity of behaviour and behaviour that was problem. These positive results were maintained beyond the end of the programme as indicated at follow-up meetings. The findings indicate that the HHGP was effective for all identified subgroups of the sample. These findings broadly mirror the findings of the evaluation of the HHIP, although results do show some significant differences between the HHIP and the HHGP. Paper 2: The interviews conducted with fifteen parents were analysed using a rigorous approach to thematic analysis to identify emerging themes. Six themes were identified from parental accounts: support, new knowledge, reconstructing, awareness, changes and interactions. Alongside these themes was a practical element about ‘what worked’. Prior to the HHGP parents gave detailed descriptions about the difficulties that they were experiencing with their child, were able to identify what they wanted to achieve through the group and seemed able to predict what might be useful to them. After the sessions parents discussed what they had gained from taking part and were able to give suggestions for what had caused any changes. Extensions and Implications: On methodological grounds it would be desirable to undertake further work with either a control group, or baseline wait list. A further extension would be to use a longer follow up period or to contact the current participants to see how this cohort is coping when they start school. This study relied on self report data, therefore future work could consider the use of videoing interactions. It would also be useful to extend the interview process to include the follow up period. The results of this study imply that PPs can be delivered effectively to groups in non-clinic settings, and this suggests a route to more cost-effective delivery of PPs. However, as the results indicate that the HHGP was not successful for all, it reminds us that practitioners need to be vigilant in attempting to identify those families that are not helped and flexible in trying to assist them in other ways - perhaps via booster sessions or through the use of self-guided written materials.

Parent-child interactions tend to be problematic among families of children diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Although much attention has been paid in research and therapy to negative cycles of interaction between parent and child, it is equally important to consider how positive family interactions can be promoted, as these are likely to help prevent or reduce behavior problems and facilitate the best possible outcomes for children. Major contributors to the fields of psychology and child therapy have postulated that parental empathy is of primary importance in facilitating healthy child personality development. However, the effect of parental empathy has not been systematically studied with ADHD children. Thus, this study investigated the relationship between parental empathy and child adjustment factors in children with ADHD. It was hypothesized that among parent-child dyads with ADHD children, higher levels of parental empathy would predict higher levels of child self-esteem, social skills, and compliance, and lower levels of child aggression. Participants were 56 children who were previously diagnosed with ADHD and their parent/guardian. Thirty-seven parent-child dyads served as a control group. The study included parent-child participation in a videotaped analogue observation procedure and completion of parent-, child-, and teacher-report measures. Results indicated that higher levels of parental empathy predicted higher child self-esteem regarding their relationships with their parents. Before bonferroni adjustment, parental empathy also predicted lower levels of aggression among ADHD children. Parental empathy did not predict peer acceptance or compliance for these children. Children of high empathy parents scored higher on peer acceptance and lower on child aggression measures than children of low empathy parents. Scores on self-esteem and compliance, however, did not differ across groups. Although there were no differences between ADHD and non-ADHD children on self-esteem, peer acceptance, or compliance measures, children with ADHD were significantly more aggressive. These results suggest the importance of interventions for ADHD children that focus on increasing parental empathy in parent-child interactions.