One of the main purposes of the present study was to use a parental punitiveness scale, that was developed on the assumption that parental punitiveness is a function of the situation in which aggression takes place. This in turn was used to determine what relationship a child's perception of parental discipline toward aggression has to varying degrees of church attendance of the child.

Adopted children enter families with parents who on average are older, have higher income, and have more education than other family structures. Because adopted children are moving into families with more resources, research suggests that they would do just as well as, and perhaps even better than, children in biological two-parent households. However, this is not always the case. Understanding how different variables could offset any negative results of adoption is a puzzle that researchers are continually exploring. Previous research has investigated differences in investments from adoptive and biological parents through multiple theoretical lenses. I seek to add to current research by looking at parental investments of warmth and aversive and non-aversive discipline. Using the ECLS-K:2011 dataset, I examine the responses of parents of kindergarteners to questions about warmth and discipline. I find that there are no significant differences in parental warmth or aversive disciplinary strategies. However, when looking at the non-aversive disciplinary strategies of using time-out, I find that adoptive parents use time-out more. Additionally, adoptive parents use chores as discipline much less than biological parents, which aligns with none of the proposed theories and suggests a need for further research on how chores are viewed in discipline literature.

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為了解目前我國通勤家庭概況，以及通勤家庭中父母管教方式（要求、反應）、親子互動關係（身體互動、心理互動）和子女憂鬱、焦慮行為表現的差異。乃以國民中學學生共1229人為研究對象，蒐集到113份有效通勤樣本，採用個人基本資料表、家庭社經地位調查表、父母管教方式量表、親子互動關係量表、柯氏性格量表等研究工具，獲得所需資料，再以單因子變異數分析、Pearson積差相關、Scheffe’事後考驗、多元逐步迴歸法等統計方法進行分析。結果發現： 1、 通勤家庭樣本數約為全部樣本9%左右，其中父親通勤佔全數樣本4.5%，母親通勤佔2.1%，父母皆通勤佔2.6%。樣本男女比例平均。父親多從事工商業，而母親多為無業或家庭主婦等工作。 2、 在「父親通勤」、「母親通勤」、「父母皆通勤」等家庭中，子女與父母親的心理互動皆少於「父母皆不通勤」的家庭。 3、 在「父親通勤」家庭中，父親對子女行為表現的要求較少於「父母皆不通勤」的家庭。子女與父親的心理互動，及與母親的身體互動關係，和其憂鬱表現間，存有顯著負相關。 4、 在「母親通勤」家庭中，母親對子女的反應較少於「父母皆不通勤」或「父母皆通勤」的家庭。對子女行為的要求，較少於「父母皆不通勤」的母親。母親對子女行為的反應程度和其憂鬱表現間，存有顯著負相關的關係。子女與父親的心理互動，與其憂鬱表現間，存有顯著負相關。子女與父親的心理互動及與母親的心理互動和子女焦慮行為表現間，存有顯著負相關。 5、 在「父母皆通勤」家庭中，子女與母親的心理互動，與其憂鬱表現間，具有顯著負相關。 6、 就全體通勤家庭而言：母子心理互動和父子心理互動為預測子女憂鬱行為（總異量13.8%）、焦慮行為（總變異量7.4%）的重要變項。 7、 就「父親通勤」家庭而言：（1）通勤間距、母子（女）心理互動為預測子女憂鬱行為（總變異量14.6%）、焦慮行為（總變異量14.1%）的重要變項%。 8、 就「母親通勤」家庭而言：(1)母親對子女行為表現的要求及反應為預測子女憂鬱行為（總變異量40.2%）的重要變項。(2)父子（女）心理互動、母親的反應為預測子女焦慮行為（總變異量45.1%）的重要變項。 9、 就「父母皆通勤」家庭而言：母子心理互動為預測子女憂鬱行為（14.2%）的重要變項。 本研究根據上述研究結果加以討論，並針對家庭教育、學校教育、社會教育，以及未來研究方向等四方面，提出數點建議，以供後續研究及父母管教、親子互動等親職教育方案規劃的參考。

Text in English / An increasingly recognised prevention approach for substance use entails reduction in risk factors and enhancement of promotive or protective factors in individuals and the environment surrounding them during their growth and development. However, in order to enhance the effectiveness of this approach, continuous study of risk aspects targeting different cultures, social groups and mixture of society has been recommended. This study evaluated the impact of potential risk and protective factors associated with family management and relations on adolescent substance abuse in South Africa. Exploratory analysis and cumulative odds ordinal logistic regression modelling was performed on the data while controlling for demographic and socio-economic characteristics on adolescent substance use. The most intensely used substances were tobacco, cannabis, cocaine, heroin and alcohol in decreasing order of use intensity. The specific protective or risk impact of family management or relations factors varied from substance to substance. Risk factors associated with demographic and socio-economic factors included being male, younger age, being in lower education grades, coloured ethnicity, adolescents from divorced parents and unemployed or fully employed mothers. Significant family relations risk and protective factors against substance use were classified as either family functioning and conflict or family bonding and support. Several family management factors, categorised as parental monitoring, discipline, behavioural control and rewards, demonstrated either risk or protective effect on adolescent substance use. Some factors had either interactive risk or protective impact on substance use or lost significance when analysed jointly with other factors such as controlled variables. Interaction amongst risk or protective factors as well as the type of substance should be considered when further considering interventions based on these risk or protective factors. Studies in other geographical regions, institutions and with better gender balance are recommended to improve upon the representativeness of the results. Several other considerations to be made when formulating interventions, the shortcomings of this study and possible improvements as well as future studies are also suggested. / Psychology / M. A. (Psychology)

Text in English / An increasingly recognised prevention approach for substance use entails reduction in risk factors and enhancement of promotive or protective factors in individuals and the environment surrounding them during their growth and development. However, in order to enhance the effectiveness of this approach, continuous study of risk aspects targeting different cultures, social groups and mixture of society has been recommended. This study evaluated the impact of potential risk and protective factors associated with family management and relations on adolescent substance abuse in South Africa. Exploratory analysis and cumulative odds ordinal logistic regression modelling was performed on the data while controlling for demographic and socio-economic characteristics on adolescent substance use. The most intensely used substances were tobacco, cannabis, cocaine, heroin and alcohol in decreasing order of use intensity. The specific protective or risk impact of family management or relations factors varied from substance to substance. Risk factors associated with demographic and socio-economic factors included being male, younger age, being in lower education grades, coloured ethnicity, adolescents from divorced parents and unemployed or fully employed mothers. Significant family relations risk and protective factors against substance use were classified as either family functioning and conflict or family bonding and support. Several family management factors, categorised as parental monitoring, discipline, behavioural control and rewards, demonstrated either risk or protective effect on adolescent substance use. Some factors had either interactive risk or protective impact on substance use or lost significance when analysed jointly with other factors such as controlled variables. Interaction amongst risk or protective factors as well as the type of substance should be considered when further considering interventions based on these risk or protective factors. Studies in other geographical regions, institutions and with better gender balance are recommended to improve upon the representativeness of the results. Several other considerations to be made when formulating interventions, the shortcomings of this study and possible improvements as well as future studies are also suggested. / Psychology / M. A. (Psychology)