La production d’hydrogène par électrolyse de l’eau PEM prendra une place importante dans le paysage énergétique pour le stockage des EnR. Le changement d’échelle nécessaire ne peut s’envisager que par une augmentation significative de la puissance nominale, passant essentiellement par l’accroissement de leur taille et de la densité de courant. Dans ces conditions, un fonctionnement optimal et une durée de vie suffisante ne pourront être obtenus que par l’homogénéisation de la répartition du courant à la surface des électrodes. Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons utilisé pour la première fois un outil de cartographie des distributions de courant et de température à la surface d’AME grande surface, issus d’un design industriel. Une carte de mesure S++® conçue sur mesure et adaptée à l’utilisation envisagée a été intégrée à une monocellule PEM de 250cm². Une caractérisation électro-mécanique de la cellule a mis en évidence le lien existant entre le champ de forces de compression mécanique et de la densité de courant. Nous montrons qu’une compression mécanique optimale n’est pas suffisante pour homogénéiser la distribution de courant : le design de cellule, et plus particulièrement la distribution des fluides, joue un rôle majeur dans l’inhomogénéité de la distribution de courant, récurrente entre le centre et la périphérie de la cellule. Nous soulignons la concentration des lignes de courant vers le centre de l’AME lors de tests dynamiques, conséquence d’un vieillissement spatialement différencié. Nous avons également développé une structure d’électrode permettant de ré-homogénéiser globalement la distribution de courant, ce qui permet un meilleur maintien des performances dans le temps. Nous avons également développé un modèle numérique de la couche catalytique permettant de mieux comprendre la répartition des lignes de courant en fonction des caractéristiques géométriques des collecteurs poreux. Nous mettons en lumière le rôle majeur des surtensions dans le pouvoir répartiteur de la couche active, qui est particulièrement faible côté cathodique. Nous préconisons de densifier la couche catalytique pour une meilleure répartition du courant et pour limiter les différenciations locales de vieillissement. L’ensemble des observations en mono cellule a été confirmé par des essais sur un stack commercial. / Hydrogen production from PEM water electrolysis will take a great place in the energy landscape for RES storage. This scale shift requires a significant increase of the nominal power, and therefore an increase in size and a gain in the current density. Optimal operation (in terms of efficiency and lifetime) can be obtained only if the distribution of current lines over the electrode surface is adequately homogeneous. In this thesis, we have used for the first time a specific tool for the in-situ mapping of current and temperature in a large surface area PEM single cell. A customized S++® measuring plate, adapted to our application, has been implemented in a 250cm² PEM single cell. Electromechanical characterization of the cell has put into evidence the link between the field of clamping force and the local current density. We have shown that an optimal mechanical compression is not sufficient to homogenize current distribution. We have demonstrated that the cell design, in particular the fluid distribution, plays a major role in current distribution inhomogeneities, which recurrently form between the center and the periphery of the cell. We have also shown that during dynamic operation, current lines tend to concentrate at the center of the cell as a consequence of spatially differentiated ageing. We have developed an electrode structure that facilitates the global re-homogenization of current lines and additionally shows an increased durability. In parallel, we have developed a numerical model to calculate the distribution of current lines within the thickness of catalytic layers as a function of the geometry of the PTL. We have found that overvoltages play a major role in current distribution, and that the cathode is prone to more heterogeneities. We propose to densify the catalyst layers for a better current repartition and a lesser differentiated ageing. Key findings from single cell tests have been confirmed on a commercial stack.

Οι κυψέλες καυσίμου είναι ηλεκτροχημικές διατάξεις οι οποίες επιτρέπουν την απευθείας μετατροπή της ελεύθερης χημικής ενέργειας ενός καυσίμου σε ηλεκτρική. Η λειτουργία τους βασίζεται σε μία αντίδραση οξείδωσης ενός καυσίμου, η οποία λαμβάνει χώρα στην άνοδο, και σε μία αντίδραση αναγωγής ενός οξειδωτικού μέσου, η οποία λαμβάνει χώρα στην κάθοδο. Οι κυψέλες καυσίμου πολυμερικής μεμβράνης (ΡΕΜ) χρησιμοποιούν ηλεκτρολύτη αγωγιμότητας Η+, το θερμοκρασιακό εύρος λειτουργίας τους είναι 30-100oC και αποτελούν μία υποσχόμενη τεχνολογία, που βρίσκεται πολύ κοντά στο στάδιο της εμπορευματοποίησης. Το κυριότερο καύσιμο που χρησιμοποιείται στις κυψέλες καυσίμου είναι το Η2, το οποίο παράγεται συνήθως από διεργασίες αναμόρφωσης υδρογονανθράκων ή αλκοολών. Το μονοξείδιο του άνθρακα που παράγεται επίσης κατά την διαδικασία της αναμόρφωσης, αποτελεί ένα σημαντικό άλυτο πρόβλημα στις κυψέλες καυσίμου τύπου ΡΕΜ, καθώς η ρόφησή του στην άνοδο της κυψέλης, παρεμποδίζει τη ρόφηση του Η2. Στην παρούσα εργασία μελετάται η ηλεκτρόλυση του νερού με χρήση μεμβρανών πρωτονιακής αγωγιμότητας καθώς και η μελέτη της βελτίωσης της απόδοσης κελιών καυσίμου τύπου ΡΕΜ μέσω τριοδικής λειτουργίας υπό συνθήκες δηλητηριασμού με CO. Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο της εργασίας γίνεται μια εισαγωγή στην τεχνολογία των κυψελών καυσίμου, την αρχή λειτουργίας τους και τις θερμοδυναμικές αρχές που την διέπουν. Στην συνέχεια περιγράφονται εκτενώς τα χαρακτηριστικά των κυψελών καυσίμου πολυμερικής μεμβράνης, τα state-of-the-art υλικά που χρησιμοποιούνται και το πρόβλημα της διαχείρισης του νερού. Το δεύτερο κεφάλαιο αποτελεί επίσης εισαγωγικό κεφάλαιο και αναφέρεται στη σημασία του υδρογόνου. Το υδρογόνο δεν αποτελεί μόνο ένα καύσιμο, είναι ένα καύσιμο το οποίο δύναται να αλλάξει άμεσα την σημερινή δομή της οικονομίας που βασίζεται στα ορυκτά καύσιμα (fossil fuels). Στο κεφάλαιο αυτό, αρχικά γίνεται μια ιστορική αναδρομή και στη συνέχεια αναλύονται οι μέθοδοι παραγωγής του και ο ρόλος του ως καύσιμο. Το τρίτο κεφάλαιο αφορά την ηλεκτρόλυση του νερού η οποία γίνεται με χρήση διατάξεων που χρησιμοποιούν ως ηλεκτρολύτη μια πολυμερική μεμβράνη πρωτονιακής αγωγιμότητας. Αρχικά, γίνεται μια θεωρητική εισαγωγή στη διαδικασία ηλεκτρόλυσης του νερού και στη συνέχεια μια αναφορά στις διατάξεις οι οποίες χρησιμοποιούνται για ηλεκτρόλυση. Ακολουθεί το πειραματικό μέρος, όπου περιγράφονται η παρασκευή της συστοιχίας ανόδου/ηλεκτρολύτη/καθόδου (ΜΕΑ), της πειραματικής διάταξης, της προετοιμασίας των καταλυτών καθώς και η παρουσίαση των πειραματικών αποτελεσμάτων. Κατά την ηλεκτρόλυση του νερού σε κελί καυσίμου τύπου PEM, παρατηρήθηκε 100% εκλεκτικότητα σε οξυγόνο, χρησιμοποιώντας ηλεκτρόδια IrO2 εναποτεθημένα με τη μέθοδο του sputtering σε υπόστρωμα Ti/C. Βρέθηκε ότι το ποσοστό του Nafion επηρεάζει τόσο το ρυθμό παραγωγής οξυγόνου όσο και την εκλεκτικότητα και προστατεύει τις θέσεις C-IrO2 για παραγωγή CO2 και οδηγεί σε 100% εκλεκτικότητα προς οξυγόνο. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο μελετάται η τριοδική λειτουργία των κυψελών καυσίμου υπό συνθήκες δηλητηριασμού της ανόδου με CO. Ένα από τα σημαντικότερα προβλήματα της χρήσης των κελιών καυσίμου είναι ο δηλητηριασμός του ανοδικού ηλεκτροδίου πλατίνας από CO. Αυτό συμβαίνει διότι κατά την αναμόρφωση των ασθενών υδρογονανθράκων ή υγρών αλκοολών σε υδρογόνο, ταυτόχρονα παράγονται σημαντικά επίπεδα μονοξειδίου του άνθρακα τα οποία δηλητηριάζουν την άνοδο και οδηγούν σε υποβάθμιση της απόδοσης του κελιού. Ο σκοπός της μελέτης αυτής είναι να ερευνηθεί μια εναλλακτική προσέγγιση για την ενίσχυση της απόδοσης των PEMFCs υπό συνθήκες δηλητηριασμού με CO, χρησιμοποιώντας την πρόσφατη περιγραφή του σχεδιασμού και της λειτουργίας των τριοδικών κελιών καυσίμου. Αρχικά στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο, γίνεται περιγραφή της αρχής λειτουργίας της τριοδικής διάταξης, της προετοιμασίας των ηλεκτροδίων καθώς και της παρασκευής της ΜΕΑ. Επίσης περιγράφεται η ακριβής γεωμετρία της διάταξης του τριοδικού PEMFC με τα ηλεκτρικά κυκλώματα και η ακριβής γεωμετρία της συστοιχίας των τριοδικών PEMFCs. Στη συνέχεια περιγράφεται αναλυτικά η πειραματική διαδικασία που ακολουθήθηκε για τη λήψη των πειραματικών δεδομένων και ακολουθούν τα πειραματικά αποτελέσματα. Πρώτα παρουσιάζονται τα πειραματικά αποτελέσματα για τη συμβατική λειτουργία με τροφοδοσία Η2. Ακολουθούν τα αποτελέσματα για τη συμβατική λειτουργία του κελιού υπό δηλητηριασμό με CO και τέλος, παρουσιάζονται τα πειραματικά αποτελέσματα της τριοδικής λειτουργίας. Αναφέρεται επίσης αναλυτικά η εξέταση του μηχανισμού της τριοδικής λειτουργίας και το πώς θα μπορούσε να υπάρξει πρακτική εφαρμογή συστοιχιών, οι οποίες θα αποτελούνται από μια τριοδική κυψέλη. Η τριοδική λειτουργία των κελιών καυσίμου τύπου PEM υπό συνθήκες δηλητηριασμού της ανόδου με CO, οδηγεί σε σημαντική αύξηση της ισχύος του κελιού και συγκεκριμένα η τιμή της είναι τρείς φορές μεγαλύτερη από εκείνη που παράγεται κατά τη συμβατική λειτουργία της κυψέλης καυσίμου. Η αύξηση της παραγόμενης ισχύος, είναι μεγαλύτερη κατά ένα παράγοντα της τάξης του 1.32 από την ισχύ που καταναλώνεται στο βοηθητικό κύκλωμα, και οφείλεται σε σημαντική μείωση της ανοδικής υπέρτασης, η οποία με τη σειρά της είναι αποτέλεσμα του εφοδιασμού της ανόδου με πρωτόνια μέσω του βοηθητικού κυκλώματος. Αυτός ο εφοδιασμός με πρωτόνια, αυξάνει το ηλεκτροχημικό δυναμικό των πρωτονίων και το χημικό δυναμικό του υδρογόνου στην άνοδο, με αποτέλεσμα να μειώνεται η κάλυψη της ανόδου με CO και έτσι να ενισχύεται ο ρυθμός της ηλεκτροχημικής του οξείδωσης. Τέλος, στο κεφάλαιο 5 παρουσιάζονται τα τελικά συμπεράσματα που έχουν προκύψει από την παρούσα μελέτη, καθώς και προτάσεις για μελλοντική εργασία. / Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that can convert the chemical energy of a reaction directly into electrical energy. Their operation is based on the oxidation of a fuel, taking part at the anode, and the reduction of an oxidant, taking part at the cathode. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells use as the electrolyte a polymer membrane with H+ conductivity. PEMs work at a temperature range 30-100oC and this technology is promising and close to commercialization. The most common fuel used is hydrogen. However, H2 is not directly available, and has to be extracted from other sources, usually via hydrocarbon or alcohol reforming. During this procedure carbon monoxide is formed as well. When a reformate mixture is fed to the anode of a PEM, CO adsorbs strongly on the anode, leaving few remaining sites for the adsorption of H2, and thus causing severe degradation in PEMs performance. The aim of this thesis was to study τhe role of Nafion content in sputtered IrO2 based anodes for low temperature PEM water electrolysis and also it was examined the enhanced performance of CO poisoned proton exchange membrane fuel cells via triode operation. The first chapter refers to the technology of fuel cells, their operating principles and the thermodynamic aspects. It is focused on the PEM fuel cells, the state-of-the-art materials used and the problem of water management. The second chapter gives an introduction about hydrogen which is a very prominent fuel and can straightly change the economy that is based on fossil fuels. Firstly, in this chapter is presenting, a throwback of hydrogen and a short presentation of methods of hydrogen production. Chapter 3 refers to PEM water electrolysis. It is presenting a theoretical introduction about electrolysis process and a description of the sets up that are used for electrolysis. The procedure for preparing a membrane electrode assembly and the experimental setup are also described. Stable water electrolysis was achieved in a PEM, with 100% selectivity to oxygen, using IrO2 electrodes sputter-deposited on a Ti/C support interfaced with the Nafion electrolyte. It was found that the amount of Nafion content on the electrode can affect both the rate of the oxygen evolution and the oxygen selectivity. It also appears that Nafion ionomer addition protects the C-IrO2 active sites for carbon oxidation leading to 100% selectivity to oxygen. In chapter 4 is studied the effect of triode operation on the performance of CO poisoned PEM fuel cells One of the main problems associated with the practical utilization of PEMFC units is that of CO poisoning of the Pt-based anode. This is because hydrogen-rich reformates of light hydrocarbons or liquid alcohols inevitably contain significant levels of carbon monoxide that poisons the anode and degrades fuel cell performance. The objective of this work is to investigate an alternative approach for enhancing the PEMFC performance under CO poisoning conditions by using the recently described triode fuel cell design and operation. Firstly, in chapter 4 it is described, the operating principle of the triode set up, the preparation of the electrodes and the MEA preparation. Also it is described the exact geometry of the triode set up and the schematic of a possible design of a triode PEMFC stack. It is delineated the procedure that was followed in order to obtain all the experimental data. First are presented the experimental results obtained in the conventional fuel cell operation mode without and with CO added to the anode feed gas and then proceed with the detailed presentation of the triode operation results. Ιt is also mentioned the investigation of the triode operation mechanism and the design of a triode PEMFC stuck. Triode operation of CO poisoned PEM fuel cells leads to very significant, threefold, increase in power output of the fuel cell circuit. This increase in power output is up to a factor of 1.32 larger than the power sacrificed in the auxiliary circuit and is mainly due to a significant decrease in anodic overpotential caused by the supply of protons to the anode via the auxiliary electrode. This proton supply increases the electrochemical potential of protons and chemical potential of hydrogen at the anode, thus decreasing the coverage of CO and enhancing its electrooxidation rate. Finally, the general conclusions of this study and proposals for future studies are given in chapter 5.

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) present a promising alternative to the conventional internal combustion engine for automotive applications because of zero harmful exhaust emissions, fast refuelling times and possibility to be powered by hydrogen generated through renewable energy. However, several issues need to be addressed before the widespread adoption of PEMFCs, one such problem is the removal of waste heat from the fuel cell electrochemical reaction at high ambient temperatures. Automotive scale fuel cells are most commonly liquid cooled, evaporative cooling is an alternative cooling method where liquid water is added directly into the fuel cell flow channels. The liquid water evaporates within the flow channel, both cooling and humidifying the cell. The evaporated water, along with some of the product water, is then condensed from the fuel cell exhaust, stored, and re-used in cooling the fuel cell. This work produces a system level model of an evaporatively cooled fuel cell vehicle suitable for the study of water balance and heat exchanger requirements across steady state operation and transient drive cycles. Modelling results demonstrate the ability of evaporatively cooled fuel cells to self regulate temperature within a narrow region (±2°C) across a wide operating range, provided humidity is maintained within the flow channels through sufficient liquid water addition. The heat exchanger requirements to maintain a self sufficient water supply are investigated, demonstrating that overall heat exchange area can be reduced up to 40% compared to a liquid cooled system due to the presence of phase change within the vehicle radiator improving heat transfer coefficients. For evaporative cooling to remain beneficial in terms of heat exchange area, over 90% of the condensed liquid water needs to be extracted from the exhaust stream. Experimental tests are conducted to investigate the condensation of water vapour from a saturated air stream in a compact plate heat exchanger with chevron flow enhancements. Thermocouples placed within the condensing flow allow the local heat transfer coefficient to be determined and an empirical correlation obtained. The corresponding correlation is used to produce a heat exchanger model and study the influence different heat exchanger layouts have on the overall required heat transfer area for an evaporatively cooled fuel cell vehicle. A one-dimensional, non-isothermal model is also developed to study the distribution of species, current density and temperature along the flow channel of an evaporatively cooled fuel cell using different methods of liquid water addition. Results show that good performance can be achieved with cathode inlet humidities as low as 20%, although some anode liquid water addition may be required at high current densities due to increased electro-osmotic drag. It is also demonstrated that both good membrane hydration and temperature regulation can be managed by uniform addition of liquid water across the cell to maintain a target exhaust relative humidity.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Dentistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in part- fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Dentistry 1982 / Rat embryos of the post-implantation stage are grown on a static culture medium, for the purpose of assessing growth and development over a 2 day period. The technique used is referred to as the petri-dish culture chamber method. This involves the culture of rat embryos on rat serum, in a controlled environment. Postimplantation embryos from the 6,5 to 8 day stage, and consisting simply of the 3 germ layers, showed a 60% survival rate in. vit/io after 2h hours and A8 hours respectively. After a full A8 hours in vitfio the embryos demonstrated well developed beating hearts, and a neural groove in the process of closing. The survival rate of embryos explanted at later stages was not as successful. The results compare favourably with the results of other workers, using the same method of culture. An advantage of the petri-dish culture chamber is that it allows for easy experimental access to the embryos at all times;a factor to be considered in any technique involving surgical intervention. Although more sophisticated methods have since superseded the static environment petri-dish technique, it is recommended here that this method should not be totally replaced by the more modern circulating culture medium technique. / IT2017

Tese de doutoramento. Engenharia Química e Biológica. Faculdade de Engenharia. Universidade do Porto. 2010

Renewable energy-hydrogen systems for remote area power supply (RAPS) constitute an early niche market for sustainable hydrogen energy. The primary objective of this research has been to investigate the possibility of direct coupling of a PV array to a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyser by appropriate matching of the current-voltage characteristics of both the components. The degree to which optimal matching can be achieved by direct coupling has been studied both theoretically and experimentally. A procedure for matching the maximum power point output of a PV array with the PEM electrolyser load to maximise the energy transfer between them has been presented. The key element of the matching strategy proposed is to vary the series-parallel stacking of individual cells in both the PV array and the PEM electrolyser so that the characteristic current (I) -voltage (V) curves of both the components align as closely as possible. This procedure is applied to a case study of direct coupling a PV array comprising 75 W panels (BP275) to a PEM electrolyser bank assembled from 50 W PEM electrolyser stacks (h-tec StaXX7). It was estimated theoretically that the optimal PV-electrolyser combination would yield an energy transfer of over 94% of the theoretical maximum on annual basis. This combination also gave the lowest hydrogen production cost on a lifecycle basis. An experimental test of this theoretical result for direct coupling was conducted over a period of 728 hours, with an effective direct-coupling operational time of about 467 hours (omitting the hours of zero solar radiation). Close agreement between the theoretically predicted and actual energy transfer from the PV array to the electrolyser bank in this trial was found. The difference between theoretical and experimental hydrogen production was less then 1.2%. The overall solar-to-hydrogen energy conversion efficiency was found to be 7.8%. The electrolysers were characterised before and after the direct coupling experiment, and showed a small decline in Faraday efficiency and energy efficiency. But this decline was less than the uncertainties in the measured values, so that no firm conclusions about electrolyser degradation can be drawn at this stage. Another direct-coupling experiment, using a larger scale PV-electrolyser system, that is, a 2.4 kW PV array at RMIT connected to the 'Oreion Alpha 1' stand-alone 2 kW PEM electrolyser developed by the CSIRO Energy Technology, was also successfully conducted for a period of 1519 hours (with 941 hours of effective operational time of the electrolyser). Energy-efficient direct coupling of a PV array and electrolyser as examined in this thesis promises to improve the economic viability of solar-hydrogen systems for remote power supply since the costs of an electronic coupling system employing a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) and dc-to-dc converter (around US$ 700/ kW) are avoided.

In this thesis biomimetic design is applied to the redesign of a PEM fuel cell flow field. A number of designs inspired by biological phenomena were developed to address the problem of attaining a uniform current density distribution across a PEM fuel cell. These designs are evaluated using a numerical model. One design, inspired by Murray’s law of branching in plants and animals, is further evaluated using and a physical model and comparing it to a commercial triple serpentine flow field. Improvements in pressure drop were seen for the Murray’s law inspired flow field, however, it was found to be prone to flooding. If this flow field design were to be applied to high temperature membrane materials, materials that can operate above 100 °C where water is always in the vapor state, the mass transfer and reduced pressure drop advantages of the Murray flow field could be fully achieved.

In this thesis biomimetic design is applied to the redesign of a PEM fuel cell flow field. A number of designs inspired by biological phenomena were developed to address the problem of attaining a uniform current density distribution across a PEM fuel cell. These designs are evaluated using a numerical model. One design, inspired by Murray’s law of branching in plants and animals, is further evaluated using and a physical model and comparing it to a commercial triple serpentine flow field. Improvements in pressure drop were seen for the Murray’s law inspired flow field, however, it was found to be prone to flooding. If this flow field design were to be applied to high temperature membrane materials, materials that can operate above 100 °C where water is always in the vapor state, the mass transfer and reduced pressure drop advantages of the Murray flow field could be fully achieved.

en Español:Se propone un modelo de FC basado en ecuaciones electroquímicas para predicción del exceso de oxígeno y de la temperatura de la pila, permitiendo además una conexión circuital con la carga. Así mismo, se presenta una técnica de modelado basada en Fuzzy, orientada a la emulación, obteniendo gran precisión con carga computacional reducida. Usando este último modelo se diseña e implementa un emulador. Estos modelos y el sistema de emulación fueron validados usando un sistema experimental.Adicionalmente, diferentes topologías de sistemas de potencia basados en FC se proponen y analizan, obteniendo un criterio de selección dependiendo de la aplicación. Así mismo, se presentan criterios de control para una operación segura y eficiente del sistema. Finalmente, se proponen una metodología para la caracterización de los puntos óptimos de operación, y una estructura de control para operar en esas condiciones óptimas, siendo validados en un sistema experimental representativo del estado del arte. / in English:A new FC modeling approach based on electrochemical equations for thermal and oxygen excess ration prediction with a circuit-based load connection is introduced. A fuzzy-based modeling technique is also proposed for emulation purposes, it reproducing the fuel cell dynamics with a high accuracy and a short computational time. The implementation of a fuel cell emulation system, based on this model, is described and analyzed. The models and the emulation system are experimentally validated by using a benchmark fuel cell system.Different topologies for fuel cell-auxiliary storage devices interaction are also proposed and analyzed, thus giving an architecture selection criterion based on the load profile. Controllers, dynamic constrains and control objectives are designed for a safe and efficient fuel cell operation. Finally, a methodology for the identification of the fuel cell optimal operation conditions has been proposed, and a control strategy for operating in that optimal profile is introduced and validated.

In this master thesis, a real-time control system that stabilizes the rotational rates of a tri-copter, has been studied. The tricopter is a rotorcraft with three rotors. The tricopter has been modelled and identified, using system identification algorithms. The model has been used in a Kalman filter to estimate the state of the system and for design ofa model based controller. The control approach used in this thesis is a model predictive controller, which is a multi-variable controller that uses a quadratic optimization problem to compute the optimal con-trol signal. The problem is solved subject to a linear model of the system and the physicallimitations of the system. Two different types of algorithms that solves the MPC problem have been studied. These are explicit MPC and the fast gradient method. Explicit MPC is a pre-computed solution to the problem, while the fast gradient method is an online solution. The algorithms have been simulated with the Kalman filter and were implemented on themicrocontroller of the tricopter.