Thesis (M.S.)--University of North Carolina at Wilmington, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves: [52]-55)

Thesis (MVis Arts) -- University of South Australia, 1997

Sexual differences in the diet of Little Penguins Eudyptula minor at four geographically isolated colonies in Victoria, Australia were investigated over 12 breeding seasons, between 1985 and 2005. The weighted relative occurrence of each prey species consumed was calculated and compared at a seasonal, annual as well as locational scale, and differences in prey size were examined. Penguin body masses differed significantly between sexes and locations, with males consistently being the significantly heavier sex, whereas stomach content masses varied significantly between locations, with samples from males usually being heavier. Fish was the principal prey group in the diet of penguins at all sites, and was more dominant in the diet of males overall. Females tended to take slightly more cephalopods and crustaceans than did males. The contribution of fish to the diet varied between locations, with Rabbit Island and St Kilda penguins feeding almost exclusively on fish, while Phillip Island and Port Campbell birds consumed more cephalopods and crustaceans. Prey composition differed both annually and between breeding stages at Phillip Island, with males and females utilizing different food resources between certain years and breeding stages. Dietary resources were segregated by prey size, with males generally preying on significantly larger Anchovy Engraulis australis and Gould’s Squid Nototodarus gouldi at all sites than did females. Such local and sexual differences in diet composition and prey size suggest a considerable separation in feeding niche between the sexes. Partitioning of foraging depths and temporal prey availability may be implied as the proximate cause, and sexual dimorphism in bill and body size, as the ultimate cause behind the observed dietary variation. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The African penguin, which occurs along the south-eastern and south-western shores of South-Africa and Namibia, has experienced a severe reduction in population numbers due to guano and egg collection in the first half of the 19th century, and oil pollution in the second half of the 19th century as a result of oil tankers rounding the Cape of Good Hope. The population would have been reduced by a further 19% had it not been for the rehabilitation of penguins at the South African National Council for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB) facility. Although this has been very successful, mortalities as a result of avian malaria infection have considerably reduced the efficiency of rehabilitation. In an effort to assess the role of immunity against malaria in combating the disease, an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of antibody levels to avian malaria was developed. The ELISA was used to detect antibody levels to avian malaria of penguins on entry and during rehabilitation from October 2001 to January 2003. The aim of this study was to continue the determination of antibody levels to avian malaria of penguins entering the SANCCOB facility, in order to allow an evaluation of the antibody levels to avian malaria for two full calendar years. This investigation was combined with a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based method, capable of detecting any Plasmodium species in penguin serum. These two methods were also used to investigate avian malaria in several breeding colonies in order to assess the role avian malaria may play in the survival of the African penguin in the wild. Results indicated that the ability of penguins to produce anti-Plasmodium antibodies was not influenced by oiling and that infection with malaria was not due to recrudescence but rather due to infection via mosquitoes. This indicated a possible role of the SANCCOB facility in exposing the penguins to avian malaria. However a large number of penguins arrived at the facility previously infected with malaria, indicating that malaria was present in the breeding colonies. Investigations in the breeding colonies revealed extremely high avian malaria prevalence even though no sick birds or mortalities were observed. This raised the question whether different types of malaria are responsible for infection in the SANCCOB facility and breeding colonies. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Afrika Pikkewyn kom langs die suid-oostelike en suid-westelike kus van Suid Afrika en Namibië voor. In die afgelope eeu het hierdie spesie ‘n geweldige afname in populasie getalle ondervind. Dit was hoofsaaklik die gevolg van die versameling van guano en pikkewyneiers in die eerste helfte van die 19de eeu en oliebesoedeling in die tweede helfde van die 19de eeu. Die “South African Foundation for Conservation of Coastal Birds” (SANCCOB) is ‘n seevoëlreddings- en rehabilitasiesentrum vir siek, beseerde en ge-oliede pikkewyne. Dit word geskat dat die Afrika Pikkewyn populasie met ‘n verdere 19% sou afgeneem het as dit nie vir die rehabilitasie by die SANCCOB sentrum was nie. Hierdie sentrum het egter aansienlike vrektes in die somer as gevolg van voëlmalaria, wat sodoende die effektiwiteit van die rehabilitasie verlaag. In ‘n poging om die rol van immuniteit teen malaria te bepaal is ‘n “enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay” (ELISA) ontwikkel vir die bepaling van antiliggaam vlakke teen malaria. Hierdie ELISA is gebruik vir die bepaling van die anti-Plasmodium antiliggaam vlakke van die pikkewyne by aankoms en ten tye van rehabilitasie by SANCCOB vanaf Oktober 2001 to Januarie 2003. Die doel van hierdie studie was eerstens om hierdie ELISA bepalings voort te sit om sodoende antiliggaam vlakke teen malaria oor twee kalender jare te kan evalueer. Hierdie ondersoek was gekombineer met ‘n polimerase ketting reaksie (PCR) metode, wat enige Plasmodium spesie in pikkewynserum sou kon opspoor. Hierdie twee metodes is ook gebruik vir ondersoeke in sommige broeikolonies, met die doel om te bepaal watter rol voëlmalaria in die oorlewing van die Afrika pikkewyn in die natuur speel. Resultate het getoon dat olie nie die vermoë van die pikkewyn beïnvloed om anti- Plasmodium antiliggame te vervaardig nie en dat malaria infeksie hoofsaaklik deur muskiete veroosaak word en nie deur heruitbraak van ‘n bestaande infeksie nie. Dit dui egter daarop dat pikkewyne blootgestel word aan voëlmalaria by die SANCCOB sentrum. Daar is ook gevind dat ‘n groot aantal pikkewyne met malaria infeksies by die sentrum opgedaag het wat dui op die voorkoms van malaria in die broeikolonies. Ondersoeke in die broeikolonies het ‘n besonder hoë voorkoms van malaria onthul. Geen vrektes of siek pikkewyne is in die broeikolonies waargeneem nie, wat moontlik kan beteken dat pikkewyne by SANCCOB met ‘n ander tipe malaria geïnfekteer word as in die broeikolonies.

Animal behaviour is especially sensitive to environmental variability and prey availability during the breeding season, and this is particularly true for non-volant, central place foragers such as the endangered African Penguin (Spheniscus demersus). Individual sex and morphology, as well as the level of assortment within mated pairs can influence both the behaviour and the reproductive success of species exhibiting biparental care. This study made use of a large biometric database and nest attendance video footage to determine the influence of intrinsic (assortative mating, brood size and chick age) and extrinsic (environmental conditions, anthropic disturbance) factors on breeding behaviour and performance of African Penguins on Bird Island, Algoa Bay, during peak breeding (March - July) in 2013. While sexual dimorphism in African Penguins is subtle, the colony-specific discriminant functions presented here provide an accurate sexing tool when only bill and flipper length are available. Despite the premise that selection of a large, high-quality mate in this longlived, monogamous seabird governs lifetime fitness, only low levels of assortative mating were found, and this only for earlier breeders, when larger females (but not males) bred. The 2013 season was a particularly successful one, coinciding with above-average sardine and anchovy abundance, and almost 80 percent of monitored nests were double-brooded, with very low levels of mortality. A- and B-chicks of double broods and singleton chicks grew at similar rates and exhibited similar body condition indices. In these conditions, chick developmental rates were independent of parental size, assortment or provisioning behaviour. Females raising a double brood were significantly lighter and in poorer body condition than those raising a single chick, although the same trend was not evident in males. Offspring sex ratio in 2013 (2.27:1) favoured male chicks, suggesting that there is potential to over-produce the larger sex when resources are plentiful. Peak nest arrival and departure times of parents did not change over the course of monitored breeding attempts (March-June), nor were they different for disturbed and undisturbed nests or for a single or double brood. The increase in CCTV-observed provisioning rate as chicks grew larger was best explained by brood size, at-sea chlorophyll a concentration, and maximum air temperature, but was unrelated to parental morphology or assortative index. Importantly, parental absenteeism commenced earlier and was markedly greater in nests frequently handled by researchers than in undisturbed nests. Both the time spent together by parents, and absenteeism were measurably affected by maximum afternoon air temperatures, the effects of which are expected to be exacerbated by poorer foraging conditions and climate change. A third of manually-monitored nests shared chick-guarding duties unequally, although this phenomenon was independent of parental sex or morphology. The adaptive benefits of mating patterns and division of labour during chick-rearing may only become apparent in a year of below-average food availability and it is highly recommended that this study be repeated in a year of scarce food resources. These findings augment past foraging ecology studies and demonstrate that investigator disturbance and environmental conditions can affect the nesting behaviour of this highly threatened seabird.

Between 15 March and 29 July 1998 we quantified aggressive movements (AMs) in a breeding colony of 44 adult magellanic penguins (MPs) during their nesting season at San Francisco Zoo (SFZ). We sampled their behavior for a total of 149.5 hrs in 46 sessions of 195 min each, all starting at 0945 hrs and stopping at 1300 hrs. We recognized 4 types of AMs, of which 2 (eye-pointing and charging) were threat signals, I (bill-fencing) was a ritualized contest of strength and agility, and I (biting) was physical attack. MPs only performed AMs within 2-3 m of nest entrances. Males performed 83% of all AMs, females 17%. The eye-pointing threat signal accounted for 92% of all AMs, and the 3 non-attack AMs combined accounted for 99% of all AMs; only I% involved physical assault. Both sexes performed eye-pointing and bill-fencing, but only males charged or bit their adversaries.

O gênero Sarcocystis é constituído por várias espécies que se diferenciam pelas características morfológicas, biológicas e moleculares. Foram relatadas mais de 196 espécies encontradas em mamíferos, aves e répteis e somente 26 dessas espécies possuem o ciclo completo conhecido. Toxoplasma gondii é um parasito intracelular obrigatório, com distribuição geográfica cosmopolita, capaz de infectar uma ampla variedade de mamíferos e aves, inclusive o homem, caracterizando seu potencial zoonótico. Nas últimas décadas, a quantidade de pinguins vindos da Patagônia argentina e chilena, região de nascimento dessas aves, para o litoral brasileiro, onde muitos encalham e são resgatados, tem aumentado significativamente. Pouco se sabe sobre as doenças causadas por protozoários nessas aves. O presente estudo teve como objetivo conhecer aspectos epidemiológicos da infecção por coccídios da família Sarcocystidae em pinguins-de-magalhães (Spheniscus magellanicus), através de análises moleculares e sorológicas. Foram realizadas duas campanhas, uma em 2014 e outra em 2015, com a finalidade de obter amostras de sangue e tecidos dos pinguins que vieram a óbito durante reabilitação no Instituto de Pesquisa e Reabilitação de Animais Marinhos (IPRAM) localizada em Cariacica, Espírito Santo. Foram colhidas 514 amostras de tecidos (músculo=342, coração=86, cérebro=86) de 310 indivíduos. Dos tecidos de 54 pinguins foi realizado o bioensaio em camundongos para o isolamento de T. gondii, mas nenhum isolado foi obtido. Amostras de 310 indivíduos tiveram o DNA extraído para a pesquisa de coccídios da família Sarcocystidae utilizando-se os marcadores 18S rDNA, espaçador interno transcrito 1 (ITS1), codificador de proteínas de superfície (SAG)2, SAG3 e SAG4, subunidade beta da RNA polimerase (RPOB) e citocromo B (CytB). Destas, 16 (3.0%) amostras de músculo peitoral foram positivas para o gênero Sarcocystis spp., quando analisadas pelo marcador 18S, e todas com resultados idênticos. Com o ITS1, RPOB e Ctv. foram confirmadas as espécies de Sarcocystis em 12 amostras, todas idênticas a S. falcatula-like. Com os marcadores SAGs foi possível observar que as sequências não tinham variabilidade genética. Das 145 amostras de soro avaliadas para a presença de anticorpos anti-T. gondii, pelo Teste de Aglutinação Modificado (MAT ≥20), 18 aves foram positivas com títulos de: 20 (7 aves), 40 (9 aves) e 80 (2 aves). Este é o primeiro relato de S. falcatula-like e de anticorpos anti - T. gondii em pinguins-de-magalhães de vida livre. / The genus Sarcocystis is composed of several species that are differentiated by the morphological, biological and molecular characteristics. More than 196 species found in mammals, birds and reptiles have been reported, and only 26 of these species have the complete known cycle. Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite with cosmopolitan geographic distribution, capable of infecting a wide variety of mammals and birds, including man, characterizing its zoonotic potential. In recent decades, the number of penguins that have come from Argentine and Chilean Patagonia, the region of birth of these birds, to the Brazilian coast, where many of them are stranded and rescued, has increased significantly. Little is known about the diseases caused by protozoa in these birds. The present study had as objective to study epidemiological aspects of coccidia infection of the family Sarcocystidae in Magellanic Penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus), through molecular and serological analyzes. Two campaigns were carried out, one in 2014 and another in 2015, in order to obtain blood and tissue samples from penguins who died during rehabilitation at the Institute of Research and Rehabilitation of Marine Animals (IPRAM) in the municipality of Cariacica, Espírito Santo. Tissue samples (total = 514: muscle = 342, heart = 86, brain = 86) were collected from 310 birds. From the tissues of 54 penguins the mouse bioassay was performed for the isolation of T. gondii, but no isolates were obtained. Samples of 310 individuals had DNA extracted for coccidia from the Sarcocystidae family using the 18S rDNA, Transcribed internal spacer 1(ITS1), surface protein encoder (SAG)2, SAG3, SAG4, beta subunit of RNA polymerase (RPOB) and citocrome B (CytB) markers. Of these, 16 (3.0%) samples, of pectoral muscle, were positive and all were identical to Sarcocystis spp. when analyzed by the 18S marker. With ITS1, RPOB and CytB the Sarcocystis species were confirmed in 12 samples, all identical to S. falcatula-like. With the SAGs it was possible to observe that the sequences had no genetic variability. Of the 145 serum samples evaluated for the presence of anti-T. gondii antibodies by Modified Agglutination Test (MAT ≥20), 18 were positive with titers of: 20 (7 birds), 40 (9 birds) and 80 (2 birds). This is the first report of S. falcatula-like and the presence of antibodies to T. gondii in free-living magellanic penguins.

<p>Ticks are vectors for a larger number of viruses and bacteria than all other arthropod taxa, including mosquitoes. In Europe is it foremost Borrelia spirochetes and the Flavivirus Tick-borne Encephalitis virus that cause disease in humans. In this study, the tick species <em>Ixodes uriae</em> has been studied. <em>I.</em><em> uriae</em> have a circumpolar distribution in both hemisphere and can be found both in Arctic and Antarctica. I collected ticks from Magellanic penguins in south Chile and analyzed them to see if they carry <em>Borrelia</em> spirochetes or Flavivirus. Totally were 218 ticks collected from 165 controlled penguins. All ticks were collected from adult penguins and the parasitizing ticks were all found in the auditory meatus which is a new phenomena compared to earlier studies. Both <em>Borrelia</em> spirochetes and Flavivirus were found in the collected ticks using PCR techniques. This is an interesting result since not much research has been performed in this geographical area before. Until date there is only one species of <em>Borrelia</em> (<em>Borrelia</em> <em>garinii</em>) found in <em>I.</em><em> uriae</em> on the southern hemisphere and new Flavivirus is regularly found around the world.  Unfortunately we have not been able to determine species of the <em>Borrelia </em>spirochetes or Flavivirus so far but this work will be continued. <strong></strong></p>

Ticks are vectors for a larger number of viruses and bacteria than all other arthropod taxa, including mosquitoes. In Europe is it foremost Borrelia spirochetes and the Flavivirus Tick-borne Encephalitis virus that cause disease in humans. In this study, the tick species Ixodes uriae has been studied. I. uriae have a circumpolar distribution in both hemisphere and can be found both in Arctic and Antarctica. I collected ticks from Magellanic penguins in south Chile and analyzed them to see if they carry Borrelia spirochetes or Flavivirus. Totally were 218 ticks collected from 165 controlled penguins. All ticks were collected from adult penguins and the parasitizing ticks were all found in the auditory meatus which is a new phenomena compared to earlier studies. Both Borrelia spirochetes and Flavivirus were found in the collected ticks using PCR techniques. This is an interesting result since not much research has been performed in this geographical area before. Until date there is only one species of Borrelia (Borrelia garinii) found in I. uriae on the southern hemisphere and new Flavivirus is regularly found around the world.  Unfortunately we have not been able to determine species of the Borrelia spirochetes or Flavivirus so far but this work will be continued.

Five penguin species breed in Antarctica: emperors, Adélies, chinstraps, gentoos and macaronis. These are important Antarctic mid-trophic level predators and under predicted climate change are believed threatened. Accurate monitoring of populations is therefore of growing importance owing to the changing environment in which they live, particularly on the Western Antarctic Peninsula where rapid warming is occurring. The inaccessibility and size of many colonies makes ground based monitoring difficult with remote sensing providing an alternative, relatively low cost, monitoring method. Advancing current monitoring methods will help improve estimates of population trajectories at a regional scale. Recent and future progress in remote sensing, with new satellite sensors and platforms, offers increased potential for accurate, consistent large-scale data collection. The work in this thesis focuses on difficult to monitor brush-tailed penguins (Adélies, chinstraps and gentoos), aiming to develop new techniques and algorithms to improve their monitoring by satellite imagery. Penguin detection in satellite imagery is based on the red/brown guano stains that colonies create, with these stains evident from space. Fieldwork undertaken in Antarctica (Nov 2014-Jan 2015) using a field spectroradiometer obtained the first in situ hyperspectral reflectance spectra of Adélie and chinstrap guano. These spectra are used to identify the features responsible for varying guano types and suggest new indices for differentiating these in satellite imagery. Satellite imagery coincident with the fieldwork, obtained from WorldView-3 (~40 cm resolution) and Landsat 8 (~15 m resolution), are used to trial the index derived from the field spectra. Analysis of the field data and satellite images includes examination of guano colour for different species and comparison of methods of guano detection, aiming to enhance species detection from satellite imagery. In addition, Landsat 8 imagery from further locations is used to produce time series of this index for colonies, examining how guano colour changes over the breeding season are seen in satellite imagery. This dissertation concludes with recommendations for future developments of satellite-based methods based on the results of these analyses. Such improvements should help improve our current understanding of penguin population and continuing population changes in relation to climate change.