Thesis (Ph. D. (Biochemistry, Microbiology & Biotechnology))--Rhodes University, 2005.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Illinois State University, 1971. / Title from title page screen, viewed Sept. 21, 2004. Dissertation Committee: Anthony E. Liberta (chair), E. Willis, D. Birkenholz, W. Daniel, M. Nadakavukaren. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 41-44) and abstract. Also available in print.

Enzymes are becoming an effective tool in industrial processes, from crude applications such as bioremediation to fine processes such as chirally selective biocatalysis. The ligninolytic enzymes have recently received considerable attention for industrial application due to both their broad substrate range and their ability to degrade the most recalcitrant natural polymer, lignin. This group of enzymes was therefore identified as the target group for this study. Improved enzyme properties are constantly being sought to enhance the range of applications for enzymes. Biodiversity provides a wide variety of enzymes. Several researchers have concentrated on extremophiles as their primary source of superior enzymes, consequently neglecting temperate environments in their search for these enzymes. The relatively neglected fungal biodiversity of South Africa provided an opportunity to test the hypothesis that potentially important industrial enzymes with unusual properties could be isolated from mesophilic basidiomycetous fungi. Subsequent screening of Eastern Cape biodiversity for thermostable ligninolytic enzymes from basidiomycetes resulted in the isolation of a novel laccase enzyme from a basidiomycetous species. This fungus was identified as Peniophora sp. UD4 by phylogenetic analysis of rDNA ITS sequences. Initial studies indicated a superior optimum temperature of 70°C and thermostability, indicated by no loss in activity at 60°C over nine hours. Further characterization of the laccase revealed a broader than usual substrate range through its unusual ability to oxidatively couple DMAB and MBTH. The laccase also exhibited a broad pH oxidation range for ABTS (pH 2 – 6.8), and a relatively high affinity (K_m_ = 0.0123 mM) and catalytic efficiency (63 252 mM^(-1)^s^(-1)^) for ABTS as a substrate. The laccase activity from Peniophora sp. UD4 was shown to be comprised of three isozymes with a molecular weight of 62 kDa and pI’s of 6.33, 6.45 and 6.50. Investigation of the nutrient and physical factors affecting ligninolytic enzyme production and growth of Peniophora sp. UD4 indicated that the wild-type organism was unsuitable for large scale production of the thermostable laccase due to the low levels of laccase production. The thermostable laccase was applied to defouling of ultrafiltration membranes, bioremediation of industrial waste streams, biocatalysis, and biosensor technology as potential applications. Application of the Peniophora sp. UD4 laccase to defouling of membranes used for ultrafiltration of brown water showed large flux recoveries of 31, 21 and 21% after the first three defouling recycles respectively, compared to 3% for the control without immobilized enzyme. The novel laccase showed potential for the bioremediation of industrial waste streams, the most successful being that of bleach plant effluent, where a reduction of 66% of the phenolic load was achieved. Application of the novel laccase to biocatalytic oxidation of ferulic acid and (±)-α-pinene showed higher product yield as compared to oxidation of these compounds by Trametes versicolor laccase in mediated and non-mediated systems. The major products of (±)-α-pinene oxidation were identified as verbenol and trans-sorberol. The Peniophora sp. UD4 laccase was successfully applied to biosensor technology, which benchmarked significantly better than Trametes versicolor laccase for the detection of 4-chlorophenol. The biosensor developed with laccase from UD4 by covalent binding to a glassy carbon electrode exhibited the best combination of sensitivity and stability. This thesis shows that a laccase with superior properties was obtained from a mesophilic South African basidiomycete. The catalytic properties displayed by the novel laccase from Peniophora sp. UD4 all contribute to the increased industrial applicability of laccases, and may be the most industrially feasible enzyme of its class isolated to date.

No presente estudo, fungos ligninolíticos isolados de ecossistemas brasileiros foram avaliados quanto a capacidade de descolorir corantes reativos e, a linhagem Peniophora cinerea, selecionada, teve seu sistema ligninolítico caracterizado. As lacases deste fungo foram avaliadas para duas aplicações: descoloração de efluentes têxteis e auxílio na hidrólise enzimática do bagaço de cana-de-açúcar. Lacase foi a única enzima ligninolítica extracelular detectada nos culivos de P. cinerea. A produção de lacase por P. cinerea foi avaliada em meios sintético e complexo, de forma a obter melhores níveis de produção da enzima. Em meio complexo (milhocina 0,5%, sacarose 0,5% e cobre como indutor de lacase) P. cinerea produziu cerca de aproximadamente 1000 U/l de lacase. Em meio sintético, contendo xilidina e tween 80, P. cinerea imobilizado (em esponja de poliuretano) produziu 3505 U/l de lacase em cultivo em Erlenmeyer e somente 150 U/l em reator de tanque com agitação por pás. Lacases produzidas por P. cinerea foram purificadas e caracterizadas. O sobrenadante do meio de cultivo foi aplicado em coluna de troca aniônica, DEAE-Sepharose CL-6B, e três picos com atividade de lacase foram observados e aplicados separadamente em Mono Q (coluna de troca aniônica). Oito isoenzimas de lacase, com massas entre 30 e 70 kDa e ponto isoelétrico (pI) entre 3 e 6 foram reveladas em géis de eletroforese em condições desnaturantes e não desnaturantes e por focalização isoelétrica (IEF). Algumas isoenzimas apresentaram alta termoestabilidade a 50ºC, pH ótimo entre 2,6 e 4,0 e Km para o ABTS entre 12,7 e 20 ?M, dependendo do tipo de lacase. Diferentes mediadores de lacases de P. cinerea foram avaliados (HBT, HBA, 2,3 DHBA, DOPAC, ABTS, siringaldeido, oxalato de sódio e Mn2+). O sistema composto por lacase, siringaldeído, oxalato de sódio e Mn2+ produziu a maior descoloração do Reactive Blue 19. As lacases foram utilizadas para descoloração de um efluente simulado, preparado com 100 mg/l de Reactive Red 271, hidrolisado em NaOH 2 M, e um efluente real, fornecido por uma indústria têxtil. O efluente simulado foi totalmente descolorido, em 24h, pelo extrato enzimático. A partir desta constatação, o efluente real foi tratado com os extratos de P. cinerea e mais de 60% de descoloração foi obtida com o uso de lacase e mediadores. Lacases produzidas por P. cinerea foram também utilizadas para hidrólise de bagaço de cana-de-açúcar. As amostras de bagaços foram obtidas de tratamentos com sulfito ácido, sulfito alcalino, ácido sulfúrico, clorito de sódio ou sem tratamento (in natura). Duas formas de tratamento foram avaliadas: tratamento simultâneo, ou seja, lacases foram adicionadas juntamente com um preparado comercial de celulases; ou num tratamento sequencial, em que a polpa do bagaço foi previamente tratada com lacase para depois ser hidrolisada com celulases. O tratamento simultâneo com lacase e celulase resultou em menor conversão de celulose, devido a possível inativação das celulases pela ação oxidativa de lacase. A aplicação sequencial das enzimas nos bagaços pré-tratados por sulfito ácido ou por sulfito alcalino favoreceu à hidrólise da celulose. Estudos futuros para tratamento sequencial de lacase à hidrólise de bagaço de cana devem considerar aspectos reacionais básicos: maior carga enzimática, temperatura, tempo de reação e mediadores. Lacases são excepcionalmente versáteis para aplicações biotecnológicas e a produção em larga escala integrará o uso da enzima em diferentes processos industriais. / In the present estudy, ligninolytic fungi isolated from Brazilian ecosystems were evaluated for the ability to decolorize reactive dyes and a selected strain of Peniophora cinerea had its ligninolytic system characterized. Laccases from this fungi were evaluated for two biotechnology applications: decolorization of textile effluents and enzymatic hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse. P. cinerea produced an halotolerant laccase activity, unique feature with the data available in the literature and with potential for biotechnological applications, making it the object of our studies. Laccase was the only ligninolytic enzyme detected in the extracellular extract from P. cinerea. The production of laccase by P. cinerea was evaluated in synthetic and complex media, in order to obtain higher levels of enzyme production. In complex medium (corn steep liquor 0.5%, sucrose 0.5% and copper, as inducer of laccase) P. cinerea produced about 1000 U/l of laccase. In synthetic medium containing tween 80 and xylidine, P. cinerea immobilized in polyurethane foam produced 3505 U/l of laccase in culture in flasks; in STR reactor P. cinerea produced only 150 U/l. Laccases produced by P. cinerea were purified and characterized. The supernatant of the culture medium was loaded on an anion exchange column, DEAE-Sepharose CL-6B, and three peaks with laccase activity were detected and applied separately on a Mono Q column. Eight isoenzymes of laccases with molecular weigh between 30 and 70 kDa and isoelectric point (pI) between 3 and 6 were revealed on electrophoresis gels at denaturing, native conditions and isoelectric foccusing (IEF). Some isoenzymes showed high thermostability at 50°C, optimal pH between 2.6 and 4.0, and Km for the ABTS between 12.7 and 20 ?M., depending on the type of laccase. Different mediators for laccases of P. cinerea were evaluated (HBT, HBA, 2,3 DHBA, DOPAC, ABTS, syringaldehyde, sodium oxalate and Mn2+). The system laccase, syringaldehyde, sodium oxalate and Mn2+ produced the highest decolorization of Reactive Blue 19. Laccases produced by P. cinerea were used for decolorization of a simulated efluent prepared with 100 mg/l of Reactive Red 271 hydrolyzed with NaOH 2 M and a real effluent, provided by a textile industry. The simulated efluent was completely decolorized within 24 hours by the enzymatic extract. In face of that, the real effluent was evaluated for decolorization by the extracts of P. cinerea and more than 60% of decolorization was obtained by laccase-mediator system. Laccases produced by P. cinerea were also used to hydrolize the sugar cane bagasse. Sugarcane bagasse samples were obtained by acid sulfite, alkaline sulfite, sulfuric acid, sodium chlorite or untreated (in natura). Two forms of treatment were evaluated: simultaneous treatment, ie, laccases have been added along with a commercial cellulase complex for hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse, or a sequential treatment, in witch bagasse was pre-treated with laccase followed by cellulases. Simultaneous treatment with both enzymes resulted in lower conversion of cellulose than sequential treatment due to possible inactivation of cellulases by the oxidative action of laccase. Future studies of sequential treatment with laccase and hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse should consider additional basic concepts of reactions such as: increase of enzyme load, temperature, reaction time and mediators. Laccases are exceptionally versatile for biotechnological applications and the production in large scale integrate the use of the enzyme in different industrial processes.

No presente estudo, fungos ligninolíticos isolados de ecossistemas brasileiros foram avaliados quanto a capacidade de descolorir corantes reativos e, a linhagem Peniophora cinerea, selecionada, teve seu sistema ligninolítico caracterizado. As lacases deste fungo foram avaliadas para duas aplicações: descoloração de efluentes têxteis e auxílio na hidrólise enzimática do bagaço de cana-de-açúcar. Lacase foi a única enzima ligninolítica extracelular detectada nos culivos de P. cinerea. A produção de lacase por P. cinerea foi avaliada em meios sintético e complexo, de forma a obter melhores níveis de produção da enzima. Em meio complexo (milhocina 0,5%, sacarose 0,5% e cobre como indutor de lacase) P. cinerea produziu cerca de aproximadamente 1000 U/l de lacase. Em meio sintético, contendo xilidina e tween 80, P. cinerea imobilizado (em esponja de poliuretano) produziu 3505 U/l de lacase em cultivo em Erlenmeyer e somente 150 U/l em reator de tanque com agitação por pás. Lacases produzidas por P. cinerea foram purificadas e caracterizadas. O sobrenadante do meio de cultivo foi aplicado em coluna de troca aniônica, DEAE-Sepharose CL-6B, e três picos com atividade de lacase foram observados e aplicados separadamente em Mono Q (coluna de troca aniônica). Oito isoenzimas de lacase, com massas entre 30 e 70 kDa e ponto isoelétrico (pI) entre 3 e 6 foram reveladas em géis de eletroforese em condições desnaturantes e não desnaturantes e por focalização isoelétrica (IEF). Algumas isoenzimas apresentaram alta termoestabilidade a 50ºC, pH ótimo entre 2,6 e 4,0 e Km para o ABTS entre 12,7 e 20 ?M, dependendo do tipo de lacase. Diferentes mediadores de lacases de P. cinerea foram avaliados (HBT, HBA, 2,3 DHBA, DOPAC, ABTS, siringaldeido, oxalato de sódio e Mn2+). O sistema composto por lacase, siringaldeído, oxalato de sódio e Mn2+ produziu a maior descoloração do Reactive Blue 19. As lacases foram utilizadas para descoloração de um efluente simulado, preparado com 100 mg/l de Reactive Red 271, hidrolisado em NaOH 2 M, e um efluente real, fornecido por uma indústria têxtil. O efluente simulado foi totalmente descolorido, em 24h, pelo extrato enzimático. A partir desta constatação, o efluente real foi tratado com os extratos de P. cinerea e mais de 60% de descoloração foi obtida com o uso de lacase e mediadores. Lacases produzidas por P. cinerea foram também utilizadas para hidrólise de bagaço de cana-de-açúcar. As amostras de bagaços foram obtidas de tratamentos com sulfito ácido, sulfito alcalino, ácido sulfúrico, clorito de sódio ou sem tratamento (in natura). Duas formas de tratamento foram avaliadas: tratamento simultâneo, ou seja, lacases foram adicionadas juntamente com um preparado comercial de celulases; ou num tratamento sequencial, em que a polpa do bagaço foi previamente tratada com lacase para depois ser hidrolisada com celulases. O tratamento simultâneo com lacase e celulase resultou em menor conversão de celulose, devido a possível inativação das celulases pela ação oxidativa de lacase. A aplicação sequencial das enzimas nos bagaços pré-tratados por sulfito ácido ou por sulfito alcalino favoreceu à hidrólise da celulose. Estudos futuros para tratamento sequencial de lacase à hidrólise de bagaço de cana devem considerar aspectos reacionais básicos: maior carga enzimática, temperatura, tempo de reação e mediadores. Lacases são excepcionalmente versáteis para aplicações biotecnológicas e a produção em larga escala integrará o uso da enzima em diferentes processos industriais. / In the present estudy, ligninolytic fungi isolated from Brazilian ecosystems were evaluated for the ability to decolorize reactive dyes and a selected strain of Peniophora cinerea had its ligninolytic system characterized. Laccases from this fungi were evaluated for two biotechnology applications: decolorization of textile effluents and enzymatic hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse. P. cinerea produced an halotolerant laccase activity, unique feature with the data available in the literature and with potential for biotechnological applications, making it the object of our studies. Laccase was the only ligninolytic enzyme detected in the extracellular extract from P. cinerea. The production of laccase by P. cinerea was evaluated in synthetic and complex media, in order to obtain higher levels of enzyme production. In complex medium (corn steep liquor 0.5%, sucrose 0.5% and copper, as inducer of laccase) P. cinerea produced about 1000 U/l of laccase. In synthetic medium containing tween 80 and xylidine, P. cinerea immobilized in polyurethane foam produced 3505 U/l of laccase in culture in flasks; in STR reactor P. cinerea produced only 150 U/l. Laccases produced by P. cinerea were purified and characterized. The supernatant of the culture medium was loaded on an anion exchange column, DEAE-Sepharose CL-6B, and three peaks with laccase activity were detected and applied separately on a Mono Q column. Eight isoenzymes of laccases with molecular weigh between 30 and 70 kDa and isoelectric point (pI) between 3 and 6 were revealed on electrophoresis gels at denaturing, native conditions and isoelectric foccusing (IEF). Some isoenzymes showed high thermostability at 50°C, optimal pH between 2.6 and 4.0, and Km for the ABTS between 12.7 and 20 ?M., depending on the type of laccase. Different mediators for laccases of P. cinerea were evaluated (HBT, HBA, 2,3 DHBA, DOPAC, ABTS, syringaldehyde, sodium oxalate and Mn2+). The system laccase, syringaldehyde, sodium oxalate and Mn2+ produced the highest decolorization of Reactive Blue 19. Laccases produced by P. cinerea were used for decolorization of a simulated efluent prepared with 100 mg/l of Reactive Red 271 hydrolyzed with NaOH 2 M and a real effluent, provided by a textile industry. The simulated efluent was completely decolorized within 24 hours by the enzymatic extract. In face of that, the real effluent was evaluated for decolorization by the extracts of P. cinerea and more than 60% of decolorization was obtained by laccase-mediator system. Laccases produced by P. cinerea were also used to hydrolize the sugar cane bagasse. Sugarcane bagasse samples were obtained by acid sulfite, alkaline sulfite, sulfuric acid, sodium chlorite or untreated (in natura). Two forms of treatment were evaluated: simultaneous treatment, ie, laccases have been added along with a commercial cellulase complex for hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse, or a sequential treatment, in witch bagasse was pre-treated with laccase followed by cellulases. Simultaneous treatment with both enzymes resulted in lower conversion of cellulose than sequential treatment due to possible inactivation of cellulases by the oxidative action of laccase. Future studies of sequential treatment with laccase and hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse should consider additional basic concepts of reactions such as: increase of enzyme load, temperature, reaction time and mediators. Laccases are exceptionally versatile for biotechnological applications and the production in large scale integrate the use of the enzyme in different industrial processes.