Progression and regression of renal fibrosis is observed in patients with diabetic nephropathy (DN). The underlying pathways, especially those that promote regression of fibrosis, remain poorly understood in part due to the fact that most rodent DN models only mirror the early features of human DN. Another obstacle for optimizing treatment strategies is that albuminuria, the current gold standard biomarker of renal damage in DN, often lacks sensitivity and specificity for identification of those patients with diabetes who are at risk of a rapid decline in renal function. A novel DN model, in which diabetes was induced with streptozotocin in Cyp1a1mRen2 rats and hypertension was generated by inducing renin transgene expression with dietary indole-3-carbinol (I-3-C), mimicked many of the key biochemical, pathological and transcriptomic changes observed in the kidney of patients with DN. Recently, the model was extended to include a ‘reversal phase’ in which glycaemia was tightly controlled and blood pressure normalized for eight weeks after an ‘injury phase’ of 28 weeks. The present study aims to employ this novel rodent model to examine pathways activated in the kidney during and following reversal of hyperglycaemia and hypertension and to identify new biomarkers that might complement albuminuria in assessing risk of renal deterioration in patients with diabetes. Methods Tissue and urinary specimen from the Cyp1a1mRen 2 model of DN were analysed by realtime-PCR, Western-Blot, ELISA and staining techniques including immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence and zymography. To establish in-situ zymography a model of ureteric obstruction was used. Urinary peptidomic analysis as well as measurement of urinary exosomes and microparticles was performed in the model and in patients with DN utilizing liquid chromatography/tandem mass-spectrometry, nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) or flow cytometry. Results Tight control of blood glucose and blood pressure during an 8 week ‘reversal phase’ did not significantly reverse the degree of renal fibrosis accrued during a 28wk ‘injury phase’. However, it did result in a reduction in expression of genes encoding myofibroblast markers and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. Genes that were up-regulated during both injury and reversal phases were implicated in adaptive immunity, phagocytosis, lysosomal processing and degradative metalloproteinases (MMPs). Paradoxically MMP activity was massively reduced during both injury and reversal phases. This may be due to an elevated level of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) protein in both phases. After separating TIMP1 from MMP in renal tissue homogenates from animals of both the injury and reversal phases using gel electrophoresis, MMP activity was restored above that of controls. For biomarker discovery peptidomic analysis was performed on urine from rats at baseline and during the injury and reversal phases of the Cyp1a1mRen2 model of DN and from patients with moderately advanced DN and from normal controls. The use of two different search and analyse tools (Maxquant, Progenesis QI) resulted in the discovery of significantly altered peptides in the urine in rodent and human DN. Further studies focused on peptides derived from those proteins for which the corresponding gene was similarly regulated in the DN model and in human DN. Urinary epidermal growth factor (uEGF) matched these criteria as the reduction of excretion during the injury phase in the DN model was paralleled by reduced EGF protein expression in renal tissue. Key biomarker candidates identified in the first two chapters were measured in urinary specimens of patients from the Edinburgh Type 2 Diabetes study (ET2DS) to test translational utility. MMP7 and other candidates, such as osteopontin or vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were not of value in predicting renal outcomes. Reduced uEGF was significantly associated with increased mortality rate. In a subgroup of 642 study participants who were normoalbuminuric and had a preserved renal function at baseline, a lower uEGF to creatinine ratio was a risk factor for either developing an estimated glomerular filtration rate less than 60 ml/min per 1.73m2, rapid (over 5% per annum) decline in renal function or the combination of both. The latter remained significant after correction for other covariates. Addition of uEGF resulted in a marginal improvement in a model derived from traditional risk factors for predicting rapid decline and the composite end-point. Urinary microparticle (20nm-1000nm) analysis was established in the rodent DN model and translated to patients with DN. Total urinary exosomes (20nm-100nm) or exosomes derived from specific renal cell types including podocytes and tubular cells, increased during the injury phase in the Cyp1a1mRen2 model followed by a decrease after reversal phase. In a pilot study comprising participants with advanced chronic kidney disease, the urinary exosome concentration correlated with renal function. In the ET2DS an increased exosome concentration at baseline indicated a higher risk for renal deterioration during four years follow-up even after correction for baseline eGFR. Urinary microvesicles (100nm-1000nm) concentration increased during the injury phase in the DN model though correlation with renal function in humans was only significant if kidney-specific marker (podocalyxin) positive microvesicles were measured. Conclusion Normalisation of hyperglycaemia and hypertension in the DN model allows the study of genetic and protein regulation during the injury and reversal phases. ECM-production but not ECM-degradation genes are down-regulated during the reversal phase. The lack of reduction in ECM during the reversal phase might be caused by persistently reduced MMP activity due to the presence of TIMP-1. Targeting TIMP might be a treatment strategy to promote reduction of renal fibrosis. For the first time, the analysis of urinary peptidomics was integrated with previous transcriptomic findings in the Cyp1a1mRen2 model and patients with DN for biomarker discovery. The approach was validated using different analysis tools and successfully identified candidate markers which were increased or reduced in DN. Candidates included uEGF, which identified patients with DN who were at risk of a rapid decline of renal function. Though the marker requires further confirmation in other cohorts, it might be especially useful for patients with type 2 diabetes, in whom renal decline is often uncoupled from the development of albuminuria. Finally, the DN model helped to develop the methodology of microparticle analysis. For the first time a potential prognostic value of urinary exosome analysis in patients with diabetes has been demonstrated. Future work will include further optimisation of the methodologies, including labelling of microparticles with multiple antibodies and increasing study participant numbers.

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La gestion de la douleur neuropathique reste un challenge en médecine, malgré le nombre de traitements actuellement disponible. L'expérimentation animale a généré beaucoup d'informations concernant la douleur, mais ces connaissances demeurent insuffisantes pour développer de nouveaux analgésiques plus efficaces tout en restant sécuritaires. La douleur est un symptôme clinique complexe avec de multiples origines, et les mécanismes de douleur centraux et périphériques dépendent de l'évolution de la pathologie. Il est donc essentiel d'investiguer plus profondément les mécanismes moléculaires responsables de l'initiation et du maintien de la douleur, afin de cibler de nouvelles voies de transmission de la nociception plus prometteuses pour soulager la neuropathie et développer de meilleures stratégies thérapeutiques. Ce projet s'est donc intéressé plus particulièrement à la famille des tachykinines issues du gène TAC1 (substance P, ses précurseurs et métabolites, et neurokinine A sont les peptides ciblés pour ce projet de recherche), une famille de neuropeptides qui joue un rôle critique dans la transmission nociceptive. Pour réaliser cette étude, nous avons d'abord développé une stratégie de quantification afin de quantifier les expressions des différents neuropeptides bioactifs cibles, par HPLCMS/ MS. Puisqu'il existe différentes stratégies de quantification des peptides par HPLCMS/ MS, une méthode analytique fiable et robuste était nécessaire pour répondre aux objectifs de recherche. Nous avons développé une méthode utilisant la quantification relative avec un étalon interne stable marqué isotopiquement. En effet, pour quantifier les neuropeptides d'intérêt de l'étude, c'est la stratégie qui s'est avérée la plus reproductible et précise. Suite à la mise au point de la stratégie de quantification, nous avons utilisé des modèles animaux, souvent nécessaires pour faire progresser la recherche scientifique sur la compréhension de la douleur / The management of neuropathic pain remains a challenge in medicine, despite the availability of numerous drugs. Animal experimentation has generated a tremendous amount of information about pain, but this knowledge is still insufficient for new more efficient and safe analgesics. Pain is a complex clinical symptom with multiple origins, and peripheral and central pain mechanisms depend on the pathology evolution. Thus, it is essential to further investigate the mechanisms responsible for the initiation and maintenance of pain in order to develop better effective therapies. This project is particularly focused on the tachykinin family encoded by TAC1 gene (substance P, its precursors and metabolites, neurokinin A), a family of neuropeptides that plays a critical role in nociceptive transmission. We initially developed a quantification strategy in order to study the targeted bioactive neuropeptide expression modulation by HPLC-MS and HPLC-MS/MS. And it is critical to develop reliable and robust analytical methods to reach the objectives. So, we developed a method using relative quantification with stable isotopic labeled internal standards. In fact, in order to quantify target neuropeptides, this strategy was the most reproducible and accurate. Following the development of the relative quantification strategy, we used validated animal models, fundamental to better knowledges of painful molecular mechanisms

Thèse réalisée en co-tutelle avec l'Université Claude Bernard de Lyon 1, en France. / La gestion de la douleur neuropathique reste un challenge en médecine, malgré le nombre de traitements actuellement disponible. L’expérimentation animale a généré beaucoup d’informations concernant la douleur, mais ces connaissances demeurent insuffisantes pour développer de nouveaux analgésiques plus efficaces tout en restant sécuritaires. La douleur est un symptôme clinique complexe avec de multiples origines, et les mécanismes de douleur centraux et périphériques dépendent de l’évolution de la pathologie. Il est donc essentiel d’investiguer plus profondément les mécanismes moléculaires responsables de l’initiation et du maintien de la douleur, afin de cibler de nouvelles voies de transmission de la nociception plus prometteuses pour soulager la neuropathie et développer de meilleures stratégies thérapeutiques. Ce projet s’est donc intéressé plus particulièrement à la famille des tachykinines issues du gène TAC1 (substance P, ses précurseurs et métabolites, et neurokinine A sont les peptides ciblés pour ce projet de recherche), une famille de neuropeptides qui joue un rôle critique dans la transmission nociceptive. Pour réaliser cette étude, nous avons d’abord développé une stratégie de quantification afin de quantifier les expressions des différents neuropeptides bioactifs cibles, par HPLC-MS/MS. Puisqu’il existe différentes stratégies de quantification des peptides par HPLC-MS/MS, une méthode analytique fiable et robuste était nécessaire pour répondre aux objectifs de recherche. Nous avons développé une méthode utilisant la quantification relative avec un étalon interne stable marqué isotopiquement. En effet, pour quantifier les neuropeptides d’intérêt de l’étude, c’est la stratégie qui s’est avérée la plus reproductible et précise. Suite à la mise au point de la stratégie de quantification, nous avons utilisé des modèles animaux, souvent nécessaires pour faire progresser la recherche scientifique sur la compréhension de la douleur. Le modèle de constriction chronique du nerf sciatique (CCI) est un modèle validé, largement utilisé pour induire et étudier la douleur neuropathique. Afin de s’assurer du développement de la neuropathie, deux tests comportementaux, les filaments de von Frey et le test de Hargreaves, ont été employés avant et après la CCI. Les cerveaux, les élargissements lombaires et les plasmas des animaux ont été prélevés afin d’effectuer les analyses pour quantifier la modulation d’expression des différents neuropeptides bioactifs cibles entre le groupe animal contrôle et le groupe pathologique. Ceci a révélé une augmentation significative des concentrations spinales de β-tachykinine58-71, SP et SP3-11 chez les rats neuropathiques, signifiant donc que l’expression de ces trois peptides est étroitement liée. Au contraire, la concentration spinale de SP5-11 est diminuée de façon significative chez les animaux neuropathiques. De plus, les concentrations cérébrales de β-tachykinine58-71 et SP sont significativement plus élevées chez les rats neuropathiques. Tandis qu’aucune différence significative n’est notée au niveau des concentrations spinales ou cérébrales de NKA, β- tachykinine58-70, SP6-11 et SP1-7. Ceci suggère que la β-tachykinine58-71, SP, SP3-11 et SP5-11 pourraient potentiellement servir de biomarqueurs de la douleur neuropathique. Nous avons aussi utilisé un modèle de souris knock-out, déficientes au niveau du gène du récepteur TRPV1 (TRPV1-/-), afin d’étudier les modulations d’expression de différentes tachykinines en fonction de la présence ou non du récepteur TRPV1, connu pour être étroitement lié aux tachykinines. Le récepteur vanilloïde TRPV1 est impliqué dans la transmission du signal douloureux en étant surexprimé, contribuant à la ensibilisation. Nos résultats ont montré que les concentrations spinales et cérébrales de SP et NKA sont significativement diminuées dans les tissus des souris TRPV1-/-. Ceci démontre la contribution des tachykinines dans la modulation du seuil douloureux, ainsi qu’un lien entre l’expression de SP et NKA et celle du récepteur TRPV1 dans les systèmes nerveux central et périphérique. En effet, les récepteurs vanilloïdes, et plus particulièrement le récepteur TRPV1, jouent un rôle central dans le processus de stimuli nociceptifs. Il est aussi connu que plusieurs ligands du TRPV1, tels que l’eugénol, la vanilline, le [6]-gingérol, ou des agonistes endogènes comme certains endovanilloïdes atténuent la douleur neuropathique en agissant sur le récepteur TRPV1. Suite à ces résultats, nous nous sommes intéressés aux métabolites de SP. En effet, différents mécanismes permettent la libération de SP suite à une lésion et à l’établissement de la douleur neuropathique. Il est bien documenté que le foie est l’organe principal du métabolisme. Par conséquent, au niveau sanguin, ce seront des métabolites de SP qui pourront être exprimés. Nous avons donc choisi d’étudier la stabilité métabolique de SP dans des microsomes de foie de rat, de souris et d’humain. Nos résultats ont montré que SP est rapidement dégradée et que le profil métabolique est différent selon l’espèce étudiée. Par conséquent, plusieurs métabolites de SP semblent intéressants et possèdent des activités pharmacologiques qui leur sont propres, dont SP1-7, SP3-11 et SP5-11. SP, ses métabolites et ses précurseurs, ainsi que NKA s’avérant intéressants en tant que biomarqueurs potentiels de la douleur neuropathique, il semblait aussi important de développer une méthode pour les quantifier dans le plasma. En effet, il est plus aisé de collecter du plasma pour éviter de sacrifier l’animal dans le but de réaliser des études cinétiques à long terme ou de développer des méthodes de dosages applicables à l’humain. Nous avons donc développé une méthode HPLC-MS/MRM afin de pouvoir estimer le niveau endogène des neuropeptides cibles dans le plasma. En revanche, nous n’avons pas eu la chance de pouvoir quantifier ces peptides dans le plasma collecté lors de l’étude animale. Il reste encore de nombreuses études à réaliser avant de pouvoir répondre à toutes les questions concernant la douleur neuropathique, sa transmission et les traitements possibles. Ce projet de doctorat a permis de commencer à éclairer la recherche sur la voie des tachykinines. / The management of neuropathic pain remains a challenge in medicine, despite the availability of numerous drugs. Animal experimentation has generated a tremendous amount of information about pain, but this knowledge is still insufficient for new more efficient and safe analgesics. Pain is a complex clinical symptom with multiple origins, and peripheral and central pain mechanisms depend on the pathology evolution. Thus, it is essential to further investigate the mechanisms responsible for the initiation and maintenance of pain in order to develop better effective therapies. This project is particularly focused on the tachykinin family encoded by TAC1 gene (substance P, its precursors and metabolites, neurokinin A), a family of neuropeptides that plays a critical role in nociceptive transmission. We initially developed a quantification strategy in order to study the targeted bioactive neuropeptide expression modulation by HPLC-MS and HPLC-MS/MS. And it is critical to develop reliable and robust analytical methods to reach the objectives. So, we developed a method using relative quantification with stable isotopic labeled internal standards. In fact, in order to quantify target neuropeptides, this strategy was the most reproducible and accurate. Following the development of the relative quantification strategy, we used validated animal models, fundamental to better knowledges of painful molecular mechanisms. The model of chronic constriction injury of the sciatic nerve (CCI) is a validated model, widely used to induce and study neuropathic pain. To perform complete data, two behavioral tests, von Frey filaments and Hargreaves test, were used before and after the CCI to ensure the neuropathy establishment. The animal brains, lumbar enlargements and plasmas were collected to quantify the expression modulation of different targeted bioactive neuropeptides between the CCI group versus the control group. HPLC-MS/MS analyses revealed that the spinal β-tachykinin58-71, SP and SP3-11 concentrations were significantly up-regulated in neuropathic animals, meaning these peptide expressions are closely related to pain behavior. In contrast, the spinal SP5-11 concentration in neuropathic animals revealed a significant down-regulation compared with normal animals. Moreover, the brain β-tachykinin58-71 and SP concentrations were significantly up-regulated in neuropathic animals. Interestingly, no significant concentration differences were observed in the spinal cord and brain for NKA, β-tachykinine58-70, SP6-11 and SP1-7. This suggests that β-tachykinin58-71, SP, SP3-11 and SP5-11 could potentially serve as drug efficacy markers in early drug discovery. We also used a knock-out mice model, deficient in the TRPV1 receptor gene (TRPV1- /-) to study the expression modulation of different tachykinins according to the presence or absence the TRPV1 receptor. The TRPV1 receptor is known to be closely related to tachykinins. The over-expressed TRPV1 vanilloid receptor is involved in the transmission of painful signal, leading to the sensitization. Our results revealed that SP and NKA spinal and brain concentrations were significantly decreased in TRPV1-/- mice. These results suggest an important tachykinin contribution in the pain threshold modulation, and a close link between SP, NKA and TRPV1 expressions in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Vanilloid receptors, particularly the TRPV1 receptor, play a central role in the nociceptive stimuli transmission. It is also known that several TRPV1 agonists, such as eugenol, vanillin, [6]-gingerol, or endogenous agonists like endovanilloids alleviate pain in neuropathic and osteoarthritis models via their action on the TRPV1 receptor. There are several mechanisms leading to the SP release following an injury and the neuropathy development. Nowadays, it is well documented the liver is the main organ of the metabolism. Thus, SP metabolites could be expressed in the blood level. So we are interested to SP metabolic stability in rat, mouse and human liver microsomes. Our results showed that SP is rapidly degraded and the metabolic profile is different depending on the species studied. Several SP metabolites seem interesting and have pharmacological activities, including SP1-7, SP3-11 and SP5-11. As all these neuropeptides seemed interested targets like potential biomarkers of neuropathic pain, we developed a method to quantify them in the plasma. Additionally, it is easier to collect plasma to avoid sacrificing the animal in order to achieve long-term kinetic studies or develop assay methods applicable to humans. So we have developed a HPLC-MS/MRM analytical method to estimate the targeted neuropeptide endogenous levels in plasmas. However, we did not have the chance to quantify these peptides in collected plasmas during the animal study. A lot of studies are still required to clarify different pathways involved in neuropathic pain in order to develop better and safer therapeutic strategies. This project allowed to better understanding of mecanisms related to tachykinin activities.