<p>Peptide bond formation and translational termination on the ribosome have been simulated by molecular mechanics, free energy perturbation, empirical valence bond (MD/FEP/EVB) and automated docking methods. Recent X-ray crystallographic data is used here to calculate the entire free energy surface for the system complete with substrates, ribosomal groups, solvent molecules and ions. A reaction mechanism for peptide bond formation emerges that is found to be catalyzed by the ribosome, in agreement with kinetic data and activation entropy measurements. The results show a water mediated network of hydrogen bonds, capable of reducing the reorganization energy during peptidyl transfer. The predicted hydrogen bonds and the structure of the active site were later confirmed by new X-ray structures with proper transition states analogs. </p><p>Elongation termination on the ribosome is triggered by binding of a release factor (RF) protein followed by rapid release of the nascent peptide. The structure of the RF, bound to the ribosomal peptidyl transfer center (PTC), has not been resolved in atomic detail. Nor is the mechanism known, by which the hydrolysis proceeds. Using automated docking of a hepta-peptide RF fragment, containing the highly conserved GGQ motif, we identified a conformation capable of catalyzing peptide hydrolysis. The MD/FEP/EVB calculations also reproduce the slow spontaneous release when RF is absent, and rationalize available mutational data. The network of hydrogen bonds, the active site structure, and the reaction mechanism are found to be very similar for both peptidyl transfer and termination. </p><p>New structural data, placing a ribosomal protein (L27) in the PTC, motivated additional MD/FEP/EVB simulations to determine the effect of this protein on peptidyl transfer. The simulations predict that the protein N terminus interacts with the A-site substrate in a way that promotes binding. The catalytic effect of L27 in the ribosome, however, is shown to be marginal and it therefore seems valid to view the PTC as a ribozyme. Simulations with the model substrate puromycin (Pmn) predicts that protonation of the N terminus can reduce the rate of peptidyl transfer. This could explain the different pH-rate profiles measured for Pmn, compared to other substrates.</p>

High levels of accuracy in transcription, aminoacylation of tRNA, and mRNA translation are essential for all life forms. However, high accuracy also necessarily means large energy dissipation and slow kinetics. Therefore, in vivo there is a fine tuned balance between rate and accuracy of key chemical reactions. We have shown that in our optimized in vitro bacterial protein synthesis system we have in vivo compatible rate and accuracy of ribosomal protein elongation. Our measurements of the temperature and the pH dependence of peptide bond formation with native substrates also suggest that the chemical step of peptidyl transfer, rather than tRNA accommodation, limits the rate of peptide bond formation. This work has made it possible to study ribosomal peptidyl transfer with native substrates. Furthermore, we have developed a general theoretical model for the rate-accuracy trade-off in enzymatic reactions. When considering this trade-off for protein synthesis in the context of the living bacterial cell, where cognate aa-tRNAs compete for ribosome binding with an excess of non-cognate aa-tRNAs, the model predicts an accuracy optimum where the inhibitory effect of non-cognate substrate binding and the efficiency loss due to high discard rate of cognate aa-tRNAs are minimized. However, these results also show that commonly used biochemical systems for protein synthesis studies operate at exceptionally suboptimal conditions. This makes it difficult, if not impossible, to relate the biochemical data to protein synthesis in the living cell. To validate our theoretical model we developed a method, based on variation of the concentration of Mg2+ ions in the buffer, to study the rate-accuracy trade-off of bacterial protein synthesis in vitro. We found a linear trade-off between rate and accuracy of tRNA selection on the ribosome, from which we could estimate the maximal accuracy. Exploiting this method for a complete set of single-mismatch readings by one tRNA species, we found simple patterns of genetic code reading, where the accuracy was highest for the second and lowest for the third codon position. The results bridge the gap between in vivo and in vitro protein synthesis and allow calibration of our test tube conditions to those of the living cell.

Peptide bond formation and translational termination on the ribosome have been simulated by molecular mechanics, free energy perturbation, empirical valence bond (MD/FEP/EVB) and automated docking methods. Recent X-ray crystallographic data is used here to calculate the entire free energy surface for the system complete with substrates, ribosomal groups, solvent molecules and ions. A reaction mechanism for peptide bond formation emerges that is found to be catalyzed by the ribosome, in agreement with kinetic data and activation entropy measurements. The results show a water mediated network of hydrogen bonds, capable of reducing the reorganization energy during peptidyl transfer. The predicted hydrogen bonds and the structure of the active site were later confirmed by new X-ray structures with proper transition states analogs. Elongation termination on the ribosome is triggered by binding of a release factor (RF) protein followed by rapid release of the nascent peptide. The structure of the RF, bound to the ribosomal peptidyl transfer center (PTC), has not been resolved in atomic detail. Nor is the mechanism known, by which the hydrolysis proceeds. Using automated docking of a hepta-peptide RF fragment, containing the highly conserved GGQ motif, we identified a conformation capable of catalyzing peptide hydrolysis. The MD/FEP/EVB calculations also reproduce the slow spontaneous release when RF is absent, and rationalize available mutational data. The network of hydrogen bonds, the active site structure, and the reaction mechanism are found to be very similar for both peptidyl transfer and termination. New structural data, placing a ribosomal protein (L27) in the PTC, motivated additional MD/FEP/EVB simulations to determine the effect of this protein on peptidyl transfer. The simulations predict that the protein N terminus interacts with the A-site substrate in a way that promotes binding. The catalytic effect of L27 in the ribosome, however, is shown to be marginal and it therefore seems valid to view the PTC as a ribozyme. Simulations with the model substrate puromycin (Pmn) predicts that protonation of the N terminus can reduce the rate of peptidyl transfer. This could explain the different pH-rate profiles measured for Pmn, compared to other substrates.

Isolée d'une bactérie, Streptomyces alboniger, la puromycine est un nucléoside antibiotique naturel présentant une analogie structurale avec l'adénosine terminale de l’extrémité 3’ de l'ARNt aminoacylé. Cette similarité confère à cette molécule la faculté de pouvoir s'insérer dans le site A (actif) du ribosome et d'inhiber la synthèse des protéines. Cependant, du fait de la formation d'un produit toxique lors de sa métabolisation, la puromycine n'a jamais été employée à des fins thérapeutiques chez l'homme. Néanmoins, utilisée en tant qu'outil synthétique, elle a largement contribué à une meilleure compréhension du mécanisme du transfert peptidique. Au travers de cette thèse, six analogues carbobicycliques (deux en série ribo et quatre en série 2'-désoxy), mimant de façon optimale les conformations extrêmes nord ou sud de la puromycine, ont été synthétisés puis testés dans le ribosome. Outre confirmer que la présence d'un groupement 2'-hydroxyle améliorait l'activité inhibitrice, ces expériences in vitro ont apporté une preuve que, dans le site actif, le déplacement de l'équilibre conformationnel du ribofuranose de l'adénosine terminale de l'ARNt aminoacylé – analogue structural de la puromycine – en faveur de son conformère nord pourrait être directement impliqué dans la catalyse ribosomale du transfert peptidique. Par ailleurs, un projet annexe sur le développement de nouveaux antipaludiques potentiels a permis la synthèse, en série xylo, de la puromycine et de son métabolite naturel le puromycine aminonucléoside. Ces composés ont été testés sur les souches 3D7 et Dd2 du parasite Plasmodium falciparum. / Puromycin, a natural antibiotic nucleoside isolated from the bacterium Streptomyces alboniger, has been used to approach and to clear up the understanding of the mechanism of protein biosynthesis. In fact, its structural similarity to the 3' terminal 3'-O-aminoacyl adenylate moiety of aminoacyl-tRNA explains its activity in the ribosomal A site causing the inhibition of the protein synthesis. Since its metabolism generates a toxic product, puromycin cannot be used as therapeutical purposes for humans. During this PhD work, six carbobicyclic analogues of puromycin, conformationally restricted into the northern or southern conformations with the help of a cyclopropane moiety, were synthesized (two ribo-derivatives and four in the 2'-deoxy ribo-series) then tested for pep¬tidyl transfer efficiency in ribosomes. In addition to confirming that the 2'-hydroxyl function is necessary to improve the inhibition properties, these enzymological tests brought an evidence that the conformational switching: southern to northern, occurring in the A site, could directly be involved in the ribosomal catalysis of the peptidyl transfer. Besides, a side project on the elaboration of potential antimalarial compounds provided new xylo-analogues of puromycin and its natural metabolite PAN. These derivatives were tested on the 3D7 and Dd2 strains of the Plasmodium falciparum parasite

Une étude récente sur le transfert peptidique pH dépendant effectuée avec divers ARNt aminoacyles a révélé la dépendance au pH du transfert peptidique. L’instabilité hydrolytique rend impossible l’obtention de la valeur expérimentale du pKa de l’eau donné pour le groupement α-amino des esters 3'-aminoacyladenosine. Comme les analogues de la puromycine sont les analogues les plus proches du 3’-terminal des ARNt aminoacyles et qu’ils contiennent une liaison amide stable en position 3’, il est intéressant de déterminer la valeur du pKa du groupement α-amino de différents analogues de la puromycine mais aussi de corréler ces valeurs de pKa aux valeurs de pKa des groupements ARNt aminoacyles correspondants obtenues par le transfert peptidique pH dépendant. Le premier chapitre de la thèse se concentre sur la synthèse de différents analogues de la puromycine et sur la détermination de leur basicité par une analyse RMN pH dépendante. Ce chapitre discutera aussi la conformation intrinsèque des analogues de la puromycine mesurée par la pH dépendance de leur constante de couplage J1’-2’. Les synthèses d’analogues dinucléotidiques, d’un analogue xylo-puromycine et d’un analogue de désoxyxylopuromycine seront aussi décrites. Les conjugués peptidyl-ARN miment des fragments importants d’intermédiaires de la transduction. Ces analogues peuvent être utilisés comme outils expérimentaux pour comprendre l’évolution de la synthèse codée des peptides. L’innovation dans le concept de ‘négoce moleculaire’ entre les peptides, les oligonucléotides et les bicouches lipidiques, qui pourrait être à la base de l’évolution de la synthèse peptidique contrôlée par l’ARN, nous a poussé à synthétiser des conjugués peptidyl-ARN amphiphiliques et à étudier leurs interactions avec les bicouches lipidiques. Dans le deuxième chapitre les stratégies de synthèse sur support solide utilisant des analogues de puromycine comme élément constitutif seront discutées / A recent pH dependent peptidyl transfer assay in the ribosome with various aminoacyl tRNAs revealed the pH dependence of the peptidyl transfer. Hydrolytic instability makes impossible to obtain the experimental bulk water pKa data for the α-amino groups of 3'-aminoacyladenosine esters. Since puromycin analogues are the most similar analogues of the 3’-end of the aminoacyl tRNAs and they contain a stable amide bond in 3’-position, the determination of the pKa value of the α-amino groups of different puromycin analogues and correlation of these pKa values with those of α-amino groups of the corresponding aminoacyl tRNAs obtained by pH dependent peptidyl transfer deserves attention. Chapter 1 of the thesis focuses on the synthesis of different puromycin analogues and on the determination of their basicities by a pH dependent NMR analysis. This chapter also analyses the intrinsic conformations accessed by the puromycin analogues, as measured by the pH dependence of their J1’-2’ coupling constants. The synthesis of dinucleotide analogues, a xylo-puromycin analogue and a deoxyxylopuromycin analogue will also be described. Peptidyl-RNA conjugates mimic important fragments of natural intermediates of translation. These analogues can be used as an experimental tool to understand the evolution of the coded synthesis of peptides. The novelty in the concept of a ‘molecular deal’ between peptides, oligonucleotides and lipidic bilayers, which may be the basis for the evolution of RNA controlled peptide synthesis, prompted us to synthesize amphiphilic peptidyl-RNA conjugates and to study their interactions with lipidic bilayers. In chapter 2 the solid support synthetic strategies using puromycin analogues as the building blocks will be discussed

Protein synthesis is a process by which organisms manufacture their proteins that perform various cellular activities either alone or in combination with other similar or different molecules. In eubacteria, protein synthesis proceeds at a rate of around 15 amino acids per second. The ribosomes, charged tRNAs and mRNAs can be considered as the core components of protein synthesis system which, in addition, involves a panel of non-ribosomal proteins that regulate the speed, specificity and accuracy of the process. Peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase (Pth) and ribosome recycling factor (RRF) are two such non-ribosomal proteins involved in protein synthesis. These two proteins are essential for eubacterial survival and the work reported in this thesis involves structural characterization of these two proteins from the bacterial pathogen, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The protein structures were solved using established techniques of protein crystallography. Hanging drop vapour diffusion method and crystallization under oil using microbatch plates were the methods employed for protein crystallization. X-ray intensity data were collected on a MAR Research imaging plate mounted on a Rigaku RU200 X-ray generator in all the cases. The data were processed using DENZO and MOSFLM. The structures were solved by molecular replacement method using the program PHASER. Structure refinements were carried out using programs CNS and REFMAC. Model building was carried out using COOT. PROCHECK, ALIGN, CHIMERA, and PYMOL were used for structure validation and analysis of the refined structures. Peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase cleaves the ester bond between tRNA and the attached peptide in peptidyl-tRNA that has dropped off from ribosome before reaching the stop codon, in order to avoid the toxicity resulting from peptidyl-tRNA accumulation and to free the tRNA to make it available for further rounds in protein synthesis. To begin with, the structure of the enzyme from M. tuberculosis (MtPth) was determined in three crystal forms. This structure and the structure of the same enzyme from Escherichia coli (EcPth) in its crystal differ substantially on account of the binding of the C-terminus of the E.coli enzyme to the peptide binding site of a neighboring molecule in the crystal. A detailed examination of this difference led to an elucidation of the plasticity of the binding site of the enzyme. The peptide-binding site of the enzyme is a cleft between the body of the molecule and a polypeptide stretch involving a loop and a helix. This stretch is in open conformation when the enzyme is in the free state as in the crystals of MtPth. Furthermore, there is no physical continuity between the tRNA and the peptide-binding sites. The molecule in the EcPth crystal mimics the peptide-bound conformation of the enzyme. The peptide stretch involving a loop and a helix, referred to earlier, now closes on the bound peptide. Concurrently, a gate connecting the tRNA and the peptide-binding site opens primarily through the concerted movement of the two residues. Thus, the crystal structure of MtPth when compared with that of EcPth, leads to a model of structural changes associated with enzyme action on the basis of the plasticity of the molecule. A discrepancy between the X-ray results and NMR results, which subsequently became available, led to X-ray studies on new crystal forms of the enzyme. The results of these studies and those of the enzyme from different sources that became available, confirmed the connection deduced previously between the closure of the lid at the peptide-binding site and the opening of the gate that separates the peptide-binding site and tRNA binding site. The plasticity of the molecule indicated by X-ray structures is in general agreement with that deduced from the available solution NMR results. The correlation between the lid and the gate movement is not, however, observed in the NMR structure of MtPth. The discrepancy between the X-ray and NMR structures of MtPth in relation to the functionally important plasticity of the molecule, referred to earlier, also led to molecular dynamics simulations. The X-ray and the NMR studies along with the simulations indicated an inverse correlation between crowding and molecular volume. A detailed comparison of proteins for which X-ray and the NMR structures are available appears to confirm this correlation. In consonance with the reported results of the investigation in cellular components and aqueous solutions, the comparison indicates that the crowding results in compaction of the molecule as well as change in its shape, which could specifically involve regions of the molecule important for function. Crowding could thus influence the action of proteins through modulation of the functionally important plasticity of the molecule. After termination of protein synthesis at the stop codon, the ribosome remains as a post-termination complex (PoTC), consisting of the 30S and the 50S subunits, mRNA and a deacylated tRNA. This complex has to be disassembled so that the ribosome is available for the next round of translation initiation. Ribosome recycling factor (RRF) binds to ribosome and in concert with elongation factor G (EF.G), performs the recycling of ribosome that results in disassembly of PoTC. The structure of this L-shaped protein with two domains connected by a hinge, from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MtRRF) was solved previously in our laboratory. The relative movement of domains lies at the heart of RRF function. Three salt bridges were hypothesized to reduce the flexibility of MtRRF when compared to the protein from E.coli (EcRRF), which has only one such salt bridge. Out of these three bridges, two are between domain 1 and domain 2, whereas the third is between the hinge region and the C-terminus of the molecule. These salt bridges were disrupted with appropriate mutations and the structure and activity of the mutants and their ability to complement EcRRF were explored. An inactive C-terminal deletion mutant of MtRRF was also studied. Major, but different, structural changes were observed in the C-terminal deletion mutant and the mutant involving the hinge region. Unlike the wild type protein and the other mutants, the hinge mutant complements EcRRF. This appears to result from the increased mobility of the domains in the mutant, as evidenced by the results of librational analysis. In addition to the work on PTH and RRF, the author was involved during the period of studentship in carrying out X-ray studies of crystalline complexes involving amino acids and carboxylic acids, which is described in the Appendix of the thesis. The complexes studied are that of tartaric acid with arginine and lysine.