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Yes / In this study using standard measures of inequality such as Gini coefficient, Kakwani Index, coefficient of variation and Theil Index we examine inequality in carbon emissions for the years 2000-09 at the sub-national level covering 17 major states of India. At the outset, in order to estimate sub-national inequality in carbon emissions we also estimated total carbon emissions for each state for the above years using IPCC Reference Approach. Our findings showed that per capita carbon emissions were highest in the low income resource rich states and lower in the high income more developed states. The inequality in carbon emissions as demonstrated by Gini coefficients has increased over the years indicating that it is the poorer states which have to bear the burden.

This thesis consists of a summary and four self-contained papers. Paper [I] Following the 1987 report by The World Commission on Environment and Development, the genuine saving has come to play a key role in the context of sustainable development, and the World Bank regularly publishes numbers for genuine saving on a national basis. However, these numbers are typically calculated as if the tax system is non-distortionary. This paper presents an analogue to genuine saving in a second best economy, where the government raises revenue by means of distortionary taxation. We show how the social cost of public debt, which depends on the marginal excess burden, ought to be reflected in the genuine saving. We also illustrate by presenting calculations for Greece, Japan, Portugal, U.K., U.S. and OECD average, showing that the numbers published by the World Bank are likely to be biased and may even give incorrect information as to whether the economy is locally sustainable. Paper [II] This paper examines the relationships among per capita CO2 emissions, per capita GDP and international trade based on panel data spanning the period 1960-2008 for 150 countries. A distinction is also made between OECD and Non-OECD countries to capture the differences of this relationship between developed and developing economies. We apply panel unit root and cointegration tests, and estimate a panel error correction model. The results from the error correction model suggest that there are long-term relationships between the variables for the whole sample and for Non-OECD countries. Finally, Granger causality tests show that there is bi-directional short-term causality between per capita GDP and international trade for the whole sample and between per capita GDP and CO2 emissions for OECD countries. Paper [III] Fundamental questions in economics are why some regions are richer than others, why their growth rates differ, whether their growth rates tend to converge, and what key factors contribute to explain economic growth. This paper deals with the average income growth, net migration, and changes in unemployment rates at the municipal level in Sweden. The aim is to explore in depth the effects of possible underlying determinants with a particular focus on local policy variables. The analysis is based on a three-equation model. Our results show, among other things, that increases in the local public expenditure and income taxe rate have negative effects on subsequent income income growth. In addition, the results show conditional convergence, i.e. that the average income among the municipal residents tends to grow more rapidly in relatively poor local jurisdictions than in initially “richer” jurisdictions, conditional on the other explanatory variables. Paper [IV] This paper explores the relationship between income growth and income inequality using data at the municipal level in Sweden for the period 1992-2007. We estimate a fixed effects panel data growth model, where the within-municipality income inequality is one of the explanatory variables. Different inequality measures (Gini coefficient, top income shares, and measures of inequality in the lower and upper part of the income distribution) are examined. We find a positive and significant relationship between income growth and income inequality measured as the Gini coefficient and top income shares, respectively. In addition, while inequality in the upper part of the income distribution is positively associated with the income growth rate, inequality in the lower part of the income distribution seems to be negatively related to the income growth. Our findings also suggest that increased income inequality enhances growth more in municipalities with a high level of average income than in municipalities with a low level of average income.

[pt] Esta tese é composta de quatro capítulos sobre a relação entre Crédito e Desenvolvimento Econômico. No primeiro capítulo descrevemos os conceitos, relações e mecanismos utilizados nos demais capítulos. No segundo capítulo avaliamos o impacto de reduções em três diferentes restrições financeiras sobre o PIB per capita no Brasil. Para tanto, utilizamos uma versão do modelo de crescimento neoclássico com agentes heterogêneos e três fricções financeiras. O modelo é calibrado para a economia brasileira em 2009 e fazemos exercícios de simulação. No primeiro exercício, uma redução do custo de participação no mercado de crédito, que permitiria que o percentual de firmas com crédito na economia fosse igual à média dos países desenvolvidos, geraria um aumento no PIB per capita de 3,6 por cento. No segundo exercício, uma redução do custo de monitoramento, que permitiria que o spread na economia fosse igual ao spread médio nos países desenvolvidos, geraria uma elevação no PIB per capita de 1,7 por cento. No terceiro exercício avaliamos um relaxamento nas restrições de endividamento. Os resultados mostram que a redução dos colaterais no Brasil para o nível dos países desenvolvidos elevaria o PIB per capita em 12 por cento. No terceiro capítulo buscamos analisar os efeitos macroeconômicos do aprofundamento do crédito com recursos livres no Brasil no período 2001-2011. Em termos mais específicos, avaliamos os impactos do aumento do crédito sobre o PIB per capita. Para tanto, utilizamos uma versão do modelo de crescimento neoclássico com agentes heterogêneos, restrições de crédito e escolha ocupacional, calibrado para a economia brasileira em 2001 e simulamos, no modelo, o aumento do crédito com recursos livres ocorrido no período. No exercício realizado, o aumento no crédito com recursos livres para as firmas de 10 por cento, em 2001, para 15 por cento do PIB em 2011, gerou um aumento de 1,5 por cento no PIB per capita no período. No quarto capítulo, nosso objetivo é avaliar o impacto do aumento do crédito no Brasil no período 2004-2008 sobre o PIB per capita, com a utilização do modelo de Lloyd-Ellis e Bernhardt (2000). Assim podemos comparar os resultados desse modelo com os resultados do modelo utilizado no terceiro capítulo. Na implementação do modelo, utilizamos uma abordagem mista de estimação e calibração para a economia brasileira em 2004. No exercício realizado, o aumento no acesso ao crédito elevou o PIB per capita em 2 por cento entre 2004 e 2008. / [en] This thesis is composed of four chapters on the relationship between Credit and Development Economics. In the first chapter we describe the concepts, relationships and mechanisms used in the other chapters. In the second chapter we evaluated the impact of reductions in three different financial constraints on GDP per capita in Brazil. To do so, we use a version of the neoclassical growth model with heterogeneous agents and three financial frictions. The model is calibrated for the Brazilian economy in 2009 and we do simulation exercises. In the first exercise, a reduction in the cost of participation in the credit market, which would allow the percentage of firms with credit in the economy to be equal to the average of the developed countries, would generate an increase in GDP per capita of 3.6 percent. In the second exercise, a reduction in the cost of monitoring, which would allow the spread in the economy to be equal to the average spread in developed countries, would generate a rise in GDP per capita of 1.7 percent. In the third exercise we evaluated a relaxation in the borrowing constraint. The results show that the reduction of collaterals in Brazil to the level of developed countries would raise GDP per capita by 12 percent. In the third chapter we seek to analyze the macroeconomic effects of the deepening of credit with free resources in Brazil in the period 2001-2011. In more specific terms, we evaluate the impacts of credit growth on GDP per capita. To do so, we used a version of the neoclassical growth model with heterogeneous agents, credit restrictions and occupational choice, calibrated for the Brazilian economy in 2001 and simulated in the model the increase in credit with free resources occurred in the period. In the exercise, the increase in free resources credit for firms from 10 percent in 2001 to 15 percent of GDP in 2011 generated a 1.5 percent increase in GDP per capita in the period. In the fourth chapter, our objective is to evaluate the impact of the increase of credit in Brazil in the period 2004-2008 on GDP per capita, using the model of Lloyd-Ellis and Bernhardt (2000). Thus we can compare the results of this model with the results of the model used in the third chapter. In the implementation of the model, we used a mixed approach of estimation and calibration for the Brazilian economy in 2004. In the exercise carried out, the increase in access to credit raised GDP per capita by 2 percent between 2004 and 2008.

This thesis consists of a summary and four self-contained papers. Paper [I] Following the 1987 report by The World Commission on Environment and Development, the genuine saving has come to play a key role in the context of sustainable development, and the World Bank regularly publishes numbers for genuine saving on a national basis. However, these numbers are typically calculated as if the tax system is non-distortionary. This paper presents an analogue to genuine saving in a second best economy, where the government raises revenue by means of distortionary taxation. We show how the social cost of public debt, which depends on the marginal excess burden, ought to be reflected in the genuine saving. We also illustrate by presenting calculations for Greece, Japan, Portugal, U.K., U.S. and OECD average, showing that the numbers published by the World Bank are likely to be biased and may even give incorrect information as to whether the economy is locally sustainable. Paper [II] This paper examines the relationships among per capita CO2 emissions, per capita GDP and international trade based on panel data spanning the period 1960-2008 for 150 countries. A distinction is also made between OECD and Non-OECD countries to capture the differences of this relationship between developed and developing economies. We apply panel unit root and cointegration tests, and estimate a panel error correction model. The results from the error correction model suggest that there are long-term relationships between the variables for the whole sample and for Non-OECD countries. Finally, Granger causality tests show that there is bi-directional short-term causality between per capita GDP and international trade for the whole sample and between per capita GDP and CO2 emissions for OECD countries. Paper [III] Fundamental questions in economics are why some regions are richer than others, why their growth rates differ, whether their growth rates tend to converge, and what key factors contribute to explain economic growth. This paper deals with the average income growth, net migration, and changes in unemployment rates at the municipal level in Sweden. The aim is to explore in depth the effects of possible underlying determinants with a particular focus on local policy variables. The analysis is based on a three-equation model. Our results show, among other things, that increases in the local public expenditure and income taxe rate have negative effects on subsequent income income growth. In addition, the results show conditional convergence, i.e. that the average income among the municipal residents tends to grow more rapidly in relatively poor local jurisdictions than in initially “richer” jurisdictions, conditional on the other explanatory variables. Paper [IV] This paper explores the relationship between income growth and income inequality using data at the municipal level in Sweden for the period 1992-2007. We estimate a fixed effects panel data growth model, where the within-municipality income inequality is one of the explanatory variables. Different inequality measures (Gini coefficient, top income shares, and measures of inequality in the lower and upper part of the income distribution) are examined. We find a positive and significant relationship between income growth and income inequality measured as the Gini coefficient and top income shares, respectively. In addition, while inequality in the upper part of the income distribution is positively associated with the income growth rate, inequality in the lower part of the income distribution seems to be negatively related to the income growth. Our findings also suggest that increased income inequality enhances growth more in municipalities with a high level of average income than in municipalities with a low level of average income.

nÃo hà / This paper aims to examine the fiscal management of Brazil States Governments, attending to the requirements of the Fiscal Responsibility's Law, in order to identify the extent to which such management results in economic growth. The study's specific objectives were: (1) to compare the results of the fiscal governments states with the Fiscal Responsability's Law's requirements, (2) to analyze the results' impacts of fiscal indicators government, especially regarding to the primary outcome upon the states rate of economic growth, and finally, (3) to provide information to the management of the State Governments for decision making, respecting the economic growth. Based on the descriptive analysis, comparing the indicators results with their limits, the states reached a satisfactory fiscal performance, excepting the excessive primary results. Finally, we can say that the results of this study, interest mainly, to the state governments, because it examines the case, correlating it with the existing theory, others states governments in Brazil, as a tool for decision making and the academy, because it is a case study in an area of great national impact and can be replicated. / A presente dissertaÃÃo de mestrado consiste na anÃlise da evoluÃÃo na gestÃo orÃamentÃria e fiscal dos Estados brasileiros e Distrito Federal no perÃodo de 2001 a 2008, no atendimento aos indicadores fiscais determinados pela LRF e ResoluÃÃes do Senado Federal, com o objetivo de identificar atà que ponto essa gestÃo contribuiu para o crescimento econÃmico dos estados brasileiros e do Distrito Federal. Os objetivos especÃficos deste trabalho consistiram em: (1) confrontar os resultados fiscais dos Governos Estaduais e do Distrito Federal com os limites exigidos pela LRF; (2) analisar os impactos dos resultados dos indicadores fiscais dos Governos Estaduais e do Distrito Federal sobre o PIB per capita; e, finalmente, (3) subsidiar os Governos Estaduais e do Distrito Federal, com informaÃÃes que possam contribuir para a tomada de decisÃo na gestÃo dos recursos e das contas pÃblicas visando a um maior crescimento econÃmico. Com base na anÃlise descritiva, comparando os resultados dos indicadores com os seus limites exigidos, de uma maneira geral os Estados e o Distrito Federal alcanÃaram um desempenho fiscal satisfatÃrio, com uma ressalva para o aspecto da prÃtica dos excessivos resultados primÃrios observados. Por fim, podemos afirmar que os resultados obtidos neste trabalho serÃo Ãteis, principalmente, aos prÃprios governos estaduais, pois servem de instrumento de avaliaÃÃo e auxiliarà na tomada de decisÃo para uma melhor gestÃo das contas pÃblicas e à academia por se tratar de um estudo de caso considerando um assunto de grande complexidade para o cenÃrio nacional.

Det finns stora skillnader i nivån av BNP per capita mellan länder som inte går att förklara med nuvarande teorier om konvergens, det vill säga att fattiga länder kommer att komma ifatt rika länder på lång sikt. I stället verkar skillnaderna i länders inkomstnivå bestå. Denna studie syftar till att undersöka om, och i så fall i vilken utsträckning, en del av skillnaden mellan BNP per capita i olika länder kan förklaras genom demokrati. Studien utgår huvudsakligen från två teorier, endogen tillväxtteori och moderniseringsteori. Som metod kommer multipel regressionsanalys av paneldata att användas med samtliga världens länder mellan 2010 och 2019. Sambandet söks för hela populationen men också uppdelat på världsdel, inkomstnivå och typ av regim. Studien visar att det finns ett positivt samband mellan demokrati och BNP per capita sett till hela populationen men i olika hög grad i urval baserat på världsdel, inkomstnivå och demokratiindex. Endast för gruppen höginkomstländer var sambandet negativt, men när auktoritära höginkomstländer uteslöts fanns ett positivt samband även för den gruppen. / There are big differences in the level of GDP per capita between countries, that cannot be explained by differences in the current capital stock levels or workforce according to theories on convergence. This study aims to examine if, and to what extent, a part of the difference in GDP can be explained by democracy. The study takes its theoretical frame of reference from endogenous growth theory and modernization theory. The method used is multiple regression analysis of panel data with all countries between 2010 and 2019. The regressions analysis is performed on the whole population as well as divided based on continents, income groups and type of regime. The study shows that there is a positive correlation between democracy and GDP per capita, but to different extents in the different samples. Only for high income countries where there a negative correlation, but that turned positive when authoritarian high-income countries were excluded from the sample.

<p>Globally, injury is a major public health problem. The extent of the problem varies considerably by demographic subgroups, regions and national income. The overall objective of this thesis is to examine the relationship between injury mortality and economic development, and to discuss its role in the changing patterns of mortality as described in health transition theory.</p><p>By cross-sectional analysis between cause-specific injury-related mortality and income per capita, studies included in this thesis indicated that while unintentional injury mortality (UIM) and homicide rates correlated negatively with GNP per capita for total populations with varying patterns for age-specific mortality, suicide rates increased slightly by nations’ income per capita, especially among women. In age- and cause-specific injury mortality differentials between low-income, middle-income and high-income countries, ageing and injury interplay mutually with regard to health transition; declining rates in child UIM by income level contributes to the ageing process, while increasing UIM among the elderly, in combination with ageing populations boosts the absolute number of injury deaths in this segment.</p><p>Between the income-based country groups, both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses show that injury mortality for all three major causes (i.e. unintentional injury, suicide and homicide) first increase and then decrease with rising income per capita, following an inverted U-shaped curve.</p><p>These results illustrate that injury is not a homogeneous public health phenomenon from a health transition perspective. While child unintentional mortality clearly agrees with ‘diseases of poverty’, unintentional injury in the elderly agrees with ‘diseases of affluence’. Patterns for homicide and suicide are more complex and uncertain. Generally, the strength and direction of injury mortality by economic development vary considerably by age, sex and type of injury.</p><p>Further research on causations, mechanisms, broader indicators and data quality, as well as theoretical developments on health transition taking new findings and parallel frameworks into account, is needed to fully understand the complex relationship between economic development and injury mortality.</p>

Estimating the Euro effect with Synthetic Control Method for Eastern Europe Abstract This thesis estimates the effect of Euro adoption on newest Eurozone members using synthetic control method. The effect is estimated on income per capita and GDP growth. Estimates indicate overall indecisive effect for Slovakia and Malta, neutral effect for Estonia and negative effect for Slovenia and Cyprus. The cost of Euro for Cyprus is estimated to be as high as 1/3 of GDP per capita. In some cases the direction of the effect changed before and after the financial crisis. The quality of inference suffers from low number of observations. Methodological assumptions are discussed, concluding that quality of Eastern European time series likely causes substantial bias in the results.