La nature a des effets positifs sur la santé (Moore, 1981 ; Ulrich, 1984). Les premiers travaux se sont inspirés de la médecine ancestrale japonaise avec la prescription aux patients de bain de forêt, afin de renforcer leurs défenses immunitaires et leur bien-être (Li, 2010). Par la suite les recherches ont montré qu’une simple exposition visuelle à la nature pouvait produire les même effets (Beukeboom, Langeveld, & Tanja-Dijkstra, 2012). À l’heure actuelle les travaux se basent sur deux grands courants pour expliquer les effets de la nature sur la santé, à savoir la biophilie (Ulrich, 1993 ; Wilson, 1984) et la théorie de la restauration de l’attention (R. Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989 ; S. Kaplan, 1995). Cependant aucun de ces travaux n’a été mené en France. La littérature a montré que certains effets étaient sensibles à la culture du pays (Pascual et al., 2012). Les travaux ont été menés en utilisant uniquement de la nature verte sous temps clément. Huit expérimentations ont été conduites, manipulant différents types d’expositions à la nature, avec différentes scènes de nature. Les résultats montrent que les effets de la nature sont présents en France, sans différenciation du type de nature. Que celle-ci soit verte ou non, par beau temps ou non, en présence d’éléments aquatiques ou sans, nous observons des effets positifs de la nature. Nous montrons également qu’une stimulation olfactive de la nature produit des effets semblables aux stimulations visuelles. Les résultats que nous obtenons semblent être fortement liés à la notion de contrôle perçu (liberté). / Nature has indisputable effects on human health (Moore, 1981; Ulrich, 1984). The very first research works on this topic were inspired by traditional Japanese medicine. Indeed, at that time, “forest baths” were typically prescribed to patients, in order both to strengthen their immune system and to improve their well-being (Li, 2010). Interestingly, subsequent researches have demonstrated that solely a visual exposure to Nature was able to produce the same effects (Beukeboom, Langeveld, & Tanja-Dijkstra, 2012). To explain this impact of Nature on human health, both biophilia (Ulrich, 1993; Wilson, 1984) and the attention restoration theory (R. Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; S. Kaplan, 1995) are the two main trends nowadays used by the scientific community. Nevertheless, none of these experiments were carried out in France, while it is clearly established that country’s culture has a significant influence on this Nature effect (Pascual et al., 2012). Moreover, it is relevant to note that up to now all the researches were only performed under both green Nature exposure and mild weather conditions. With the aim of starting to decipher more precisely the influence of the presence of a Nature component on human health and prosocial behavior, this present thesis describes eight experiments carried out in France, with several kinds of Nature exposures and Nature scenes. Results highlight the positive effects of Nature, whatever its type, i.e. green or not, in mild weather or not, with or without aquatic component, etc. Furthermore, this work brings to light than an olfactory stimulation (i.e. using fragrances of Nature) generates similar effects compared to a visual one. Altogether, the results appear to be closely related to the perceived control (freedom).

The advent of the Internet, the influx of technology comparison shopping, and the evolvement of channels have increased the knowledge base of the consumer to the point where some scholars claim the multichannel consumer has more knowledge and control than the salesperson. Selling to a customer who has the control is a challenge for retailers and their sales forces. The purpose of this research is to examine the underlying decision process of the multichannel consumer and the impact of the retail salesperson. This present study tests a conceptual model that suggests multichannel consumers' perceptions of information asymmetry lead to perceived control and purchase intention. Based upon the model, the salesperson's new role is to motivate purchase intention by using adaptive selling to affect the consumer's perception of information asymmetry and perceived control. Using a scenario-based methodology tested with a sample of 307 multichannel consumers, the current investigation examined the impact of: (1) information asymmetry on the consumer's perceived control, (2) perceived control on purchase intention, (3) perceived control as a mediator between information asymmetry and purchase intention, (4) adaptive selling behavior on the consumer's perception of information asymmetry, and (5) adaptive selling behavior on the consumer's purchase intention. The findings revealed that if the multichannel consumer perceives an advantaged information asymmetry then perceived control and purchase intention will be impacted. Adaptive selling behavior affects the consumer's perceptions of information asymmetry but not perceived control. These findings can be used to help managers devise techniques to support the salesperson's ability to secure the sale with the multichannel consumer.

La perception pour un individu que son fonctionnement est déterminé par ses propres actions et comportements serait l’un des facteurs clés d’un vieillissement cognitif réussi. Cette perception de contrôle conduirait à fournir des efforts soutenus pour rester performant sur le plan cognitif en dépit de l'avancée en âge, ce qui contribuerait au maintien de bonnes habiletés cognitives au fil du temps. Aujourd’hui, de nombreux travaux mettent en évidence que les personnes avec un fort sentiment de contrôle obtiennent de meilleures performances dans les tâches de mémoire épisodique que les autres. Néanmoins, l’hypothèse d’une préservation différentielle des capacités de mémoire épisodique en fonction du niveau de contrôle perçu manque encore de soutien empirique. A travers trois études expérimentales et la validation d’une nouvelle échelle de contrôle perçu spécifique à la mémoire, la présente thèse visait à déterminer si le contrôle perçu pouvait jouer un rôle positif dans l’évolution de la mémoire épisodique au fil de l’âge adulte puis à identifier les mécanismes explicatifs de la relation entre le contrôle perçu et la mémoire épisodique à différents âges de la vie adulte. Dans l’ensemble, nos études ne permettent pas de valider l’hypothèse selon laquelle un contrôle perçu plus élevé atténuerait les différences liées à l’âge en mémoire épisodique. En revanche, nos résultats suggèrent que les personnes, et en particulier les plus âgées, qui perçoivent leur mémoire comme contrôlable obtiennent de meilleures performances de mémoire épisodique que les autres grâce à une plus grande utilisation et à une exécution plus efficace de stratégies cognitives coûteuses en termes de ressources au cours de la tâche. / Perceiving one’s own functioning as determined by one’s own actions and behaviors would be one of the key factors of successful cognitive aging. Perceived control would lead to sustained efforts to maintain a high level of cognitive performance despite advancing age, which would predict a positive evolution of cognitive abilities over time. Currently, many studies show that people with higher levels of sense of control have better memory performance than people who believe that events are beyond their control. Nevertheless, there is still a lack of empirical support concerning the hypothesis of a differential preservation of memory abilities as a function of levels of perceived control. Through three experimental studies and the validation of a new scale evaluating memory control beliefs, this thesis aimed to determine whether perceived control could make a positive contribution to memory aging and to identify the mechanisms that may explain the relationship between perceived control and episodic memory at different ages. Overall, our studies do not support the hypothesis that higher perceived control would moderate age-related differences in episodic memory. However, our work suggests that individuals, especially the older ones, who perceive their memory as controllable obtain better performance during memory tasks than those who perceive their memory as uncontrollable through greater and more efficient use of resource-demanding cognitive strategies.

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Adolescence is a stressful time for many children. Changes in their environment or changes in social situations are some typical stressors that an adolescent child might encounter. Interactions with parents can also be a stressor for a child. Previous research has shown that a risk factor for a parent using harsh parenting techniques is perceived control. Parents who have low perceived control are at a higher risk to engage in physical parenting techniques or child abuse. This study included 198 middle school students and their female parent or guardian pairs (296 total participants), with the adolescent participants ranging in age from 10-year-old to 14-years-old. The adult participants were evaluated for their level of perceived control and the adolescent participants were evaluated for their level of perceived stress. The results showed that parents who perceived themselves as have a low amount of control over their child's behavior (low ACF), regardless of the level of control the parents perceived the child to have over their own behavior (CCF), were linked with their child have a high level of perceived stress, F (1, 182) = 5.14, p = .025. This effect was found only for the 14-year-old participants, t (30) = 2.774, p = .009. Implications of thesis results and areas of further research are suggested. It is possible that as a child gets older and enters puberty, the parent of the child feels as if they are losing control over their child and, as a result, resort to more forceful parenting techniques to regain control.

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Diabetes is a rapidly growing health issue in the United States and across the globe, and is currently the seventh leading cause of death in the United States. Uncontrolled diabetes can lead to other health complications, including coronary heart disease, stroke, kidney disease, vision loss, and Alzheimer’s disease. Diabetes also attributes to a large financial burden in the United States, costing an estimated $245 billion among individuals diagnosed with diabetes in 2012 and a 41 percent increase from 2007. Blood glucose control is essential to reducing diabetes complications and related health care costs. Social resources are central to adherence of these self-management practices, particularly in middle-aged and older adults. Past research has examined the effect of social resources on health behaviors and health outcomes, but little has been done to examine the role of chronic stress on this relationship. Chronic stress is important to diabetes control because stress can impair an individual’s ability to perform diabetes self-management behaviors. The purpose of this research was to fully identify: 1.) predictors of four diabetes control typologies, 2.) if chronic stress mediates the relationship between social embeddedness and diabetes control, and 3.) whether perceived social support moderates the relationship between chronic stress and diabetes control. Data from the 2006-2012 waves of the Health and Retirement Study, a nationally-representative study of adults in the United States, was utilized for these analyses. Study 1 found that perceived diabetes control predicted objective diabetes control. Multinomial logistic regression was employed to determine that age, race, income, self-rated health, perceived control over health, presence of ADLs and IADLs, duration of diabetes, restless sleep, smoking status, and taking oral medication and insulin to treat diabetes were significant predictors of at least one of the four diabetes control typologies, 1.) truly controlled, 2.) falsely controlled, 3.) falsely uncontrolled, and 4.) truly uncontrolled. The results of Study 1 suggest that other factors are associated with the disconnect between perceived and objective diabetes control. Study 2 found limited evidence of a relationship between social embeddedness and 1.) perceived and 2.) objective diabetes control. Generalized structural equation modeling was used to examine the mediating effect of 1.) number of chronic stressors and 2.) perceived stress on the relationship between social embeddedness and both types of diabetes control. One social embeddedness factor, contact with children through meeting in person and speaking on the phone, was fully mediated by perceived stress in its relationship with perceived diabetes control. However, perceived stress did not mediate the association between this social embeddedness factor and objective diabetes control. The results of Study 2 suggest that social embeddedness does not impact diabetes control in the presence of chronic stress, but that support from a social network may. Study 3 examined the relationship between perceived stress and five diabetes control outcomes, 1.) perceived diabetes control, 2.) objective diabetes control, 3.) use of oral medication to treat diabetes, 4.) use of insulin to treat diabetes, and 5.) insulin compliance based on doctor’s recommendation. This study also explored the moderating effect of perceived social support on the relationship between perceived stress and the five diabetes control outcomes. Overall, the findings from Study 3 suggest that perceived negative social support in the presence of high stress may hinder diabetes control and control-related behaviors, and that total social support from a spouse in the presence of high stress was predictive of insulin compliance. The project ultimately illustrated how perceptions of stress and support may impact perceptions of diabetes control and control-related behaviors, but not objective control. However, results of this study should be interpreted with caution because many of the psychosocial measures analyzed were not from validated survey instruments. Overall, future research must focus on how perceptions, whether of control, stress, or support, impact diabetes-related behaviors, and ultimately objective diabetes control. Public health programming can help to improve accurate perceptions of diabetes control by strengthening access to social resources and mitigating the impact of chronic stressors. / Public Health

This thesis describes a three year study which explored perceptions and experiences of being involved in self care and perceptions of control and self-efficacy over time amongst patients receiving a six month course of chemotherapy treatment for colorectal cancer. The study was underpinned by Leventhal’s Self Regulation Model and aimed to explore how patients undergoing chemotherapy for colorectal cancer perceived the meaning of self care, what they did as part of their self care in managing the effects of their treatment and whether this changed between the beginning and end of their six month course of chemotherapy. The study also set out to explore the relationship between patients’ perceptions of control and self efficacy and their involvement in self care. The study adopted a patient focussed, mixed method, longitudinal approach for complementarity and expansion purposes in which the qualitative findings formed the focus of the investigation, supplemented by the quantitative findings. This was important to provide a greater breadth and range to the study and to obtain a realistic understanding of patients’ perceptions and experiences of being involved in self care during their six month course of chemotherapy treatment and the influence of their perceptions of control and self efficacy on their involvement in self care. Thirty one patients participated in the study and data were collected using qualitative semi structured interviews (with a subsample of patients who participated in the study) and quantitative questionnaires (Illness Perception Questionnaire-revised and the Strategies Used by People to Promote Health) and prospective self care diaries with the full study sample. Data were collected at several time points over the course of patients’ chemotherapy treatment (beginning, middle and end of treatment) and were analysed and integrated in accordance with Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998)’s guidance for integrating qualitative and quantitative findings in a mixed methods study. The study findings revealed that the use of a mixed method, longitudinal study design was a valuable approach for understanding patients’ involvement in self care during chemotherapy for colorectal cancer and the influence of factors, such as their perceptions of control, on their subsequent involvement in their self care. In particular, the principal findings suggested that self care held a range of meanings to the patients in this study. Principally, patients’ self care consisted of two components; physical self care, carried out to manage the physical impact of undergoing treatment, and emotional self care, carried out to manage their emotional response to being diagnosed with, and undergoing treatment for, cancer. The findings suggested that there was no association between patients’ perceptions of control and the degree of self care that they carried out identified in the quantitative analysis. However, in the qualitative analysis, it was revealed that patients’ perceptions of control were likely to influence their attitudes towards their active involvement in self care and the importance with which they viewed this role. In particular, patients who considered themselves to have a high degree of control during their treatment were more likely to believe that they could limit the impact of the treatment through their own actions, that being actively involved in their self care was important and were interested in taking on this role, and that they would use a greater range of self care strategies in helping to manage the impact of their treatment. Conversely patients who considered themselves to have a lower degree of control during their treatment were less likely to believe that they could limit the impact of the treatment through their own actions, that their active involvement in self care was important and were less likely to expect to take on an active role, preferring to leave the management of treatment-related effects to health professionals, whom they regarded as being the “experts”. The findings from this study have implications for nursing practice because they reinforce the importance of the listening to the patient’s experience and how this approach can contribute to a fuller and more accurate understanding of how patients become involved in their self care and the factors that influence this. This is important so that nurses can provide holistic care, tailored to meet their patients’ self care needs and preferences, and to encourage partnership working between patients, nurses, allied health professionals and other agencies in promoting involvement in self care. The findings also have implications for theories relating to self care in emphasising the importance of patient centred models of care and for Leventhal’s Self Regulation Model in adding further support for the components of the model yet also offering a greater understanding of how the model fits with patients’ emotional responses to the effects of illness and its’ treatments. Finally, the study findings have implications for future research, calling for further research to focus on the meaning of constructs such as self care and control from the patients’ perspective and to further explore the use of the mixed methodology in researching and understanding patients’ involvement in self care and the factors that influence this.