The focus of this thesis is on the behavior of Taiwanese consumers in the organic food market in Taiwan. The theory of planned behavior is used to determine what role attitudes, social influences and perceived control has on Taiwanese consumers¡¦ intention to purchase organic food. Furthermore, a fourth construct testing the role of one¡¦s attitude towards the environment on consumer behavior is tested. The importance of demographics on the organic food market is also tested to determine a target market for the marketers of organic food in Taiwan. The data for this thesis was collected through several interviews which provided detailed information on the beliefs and attitudes of Taiwanese consumers on organic food. The results from the interviews were used as the foundation of the questionnaire which was hosted online. This thesis determined that the main factors influencing consumer behavior of the organic food market in Taiwan are the attitudes of Taiwanese consumers towards organic food and social influences on Taiwanese consumers. Marketing efforts of organic food in Taiwan should therefore focus on attitudes and social influences on Taiwanese consumers. Perceived control is less influential, while the attitude of Taiwanese consumers towards the environment did not prove to have a positive significant relationship with intention to purchase organic food. This thesis proved that there is no significant difference in intention to purchase organic food between Taiwanese consumers¡¦ of different genders, areas of residence and income levels, however those aged over 50 and 30-39 years old are significantly more inclined to purchase organic food than those aged 18-29.

Researchers have struggled to define how to age well since the time of Roman philosopher Cicero in 44 BC, yet today it remains a mystery (Tate, Lah, & Cuddy, 2003). In the context of dealing with age-related declines that often accompany later life, it has recently been suggested that positive reinterpretation, a concept implicit to positive psychology, may be important (Ouwehand, de Ridder, & Bensing, 2007; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Positive reinterpretation has at times been referred to as “secondary control” in the psychological literature. In their seminal article of 1982, Rothbaum, Weisz, and Snyder theorized that there were multiple ways in which people could positively reinterpret outcomes and gain feelings of secondary control, including believing in the power of others and nature, as well as downgrading importance. These belief patterns become especially important in later life, when faced with age-related challenges. In the present study, secondary control beliefs were examined cross-sectionally in 2003 (n = 223) and prospectively in 2006 (n = 117) in a sample of older adults (M age = 85 years, 62% women) using a variety of outcome measures including severity of chronic conditions score, recent health, self-rated health, positive emotion, life satisfaction, and perceived stress. The unique contributions of this study are twofold. First, the findings suggest that some older adults may emphasize certain secondary control beliefs in combination. Second, the combined beliefs were found to relate cross-sectionally to measures of physical and psychological well-being. These exploratory findings have important implications in applied and theoretical contexts. In applied contexts, they may help to enhance physical and psychological well-being in the very old. In theoretical contexts, they extend contemporary thinking on secondary control.

Researchers have struggled to define how to age well since the time of Roman philosopher Cicero in 44 BC, yet today it remains a mystery (Tate, Lah, & Cuddy, 2003). In the context of dealing with age-related declines that often accompany later life, it has recently been suggested that positive reinterpretation, a concept implicit to positive psychology, may be important (Ouwehand, de Ridder, & Bensing, 2007; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Positive reinterpretation has at times been referred to as “secondary control” in the psychological literature. In their seminal article of 1982, Rothbaum, Weisz, and Snyder theorized that there were multiple ways in which people could positively reinterpret outcomes and gain feelings of secondary control, including believing in the power of others and nature, as well as downgrading importance. These belief patterns become especially important in later life, when faced with age-related challenges. In the present study, secondary control beliefs were examined cross-sectionally in 2003 (n = 223) and prospectively in 2006 (n = 117) in a sample of older adults (M age = 85 years, 62% women) using a variety of outcome measures including severity of chronic conditions score, recent health, self-rated health, positive emotion, life satisfaction, and perceived stress. The unique contributions of this study are twofold. First, the findings suggest that some older adults may emphasize certain secondary control beliefs in combination. Second, the combined beliefs were found to relate cross-sectionally to measures of physical and psychological well-being. These exploratory findings have important implications in applied and theoretical contexts. In applied contexts, they may help to enhance physical and psychological well-being in the very old. In theoretical contexts, they extend contemporary thinking on secondary control.

This study sought to investigate solitude as a phenomenon. People’s affinity for solitude and the antecedents of affinity for solitude were of crucial interest to the study because affinity for solitude has been considered a strong determinant of solitude behavior. Based on the review of existing solitude studies, major constructs believed to comprise an empirical model were theoretically and operationally defined: affinity for solitude, general attitudes toward solitude, subjective norms, perceived control, extraversion, intended solitude behavior, and actual solitude behavior. The relationships among latent factors were hypothesized for empirical tests. A questionnaire was designed to measure the above constructs. Several items were based on previous studies although several items were developed by the investigator. A total of 395 college students, 162 male and 233 female students completed an online survey in exchange for extra credit. Preliminary analysis indicated the internal consistency of the battery of measurement scales used in this study were highly reliable; the measurement test also provided empirical evidence of the construct validity of the developed measures. A test of the hypothesized model of people’s affinity for solitude revealed that there were well-defined path relationships between latent factors with a good fit between the measures and the sample data. Findings revealed that general attitudes toward solitude and subjective norms positively contributed to affinity for solitude; while extraversion negatively influenced affinity for solitude. Affinity for solitude effectively predicted intended solitude behavior and actual solitude behavior. Additionally, the study found that subjective norms and general attitudes toward solitude also significantly predicted intended solitude behavior. A model of people’s affinity for solitude and solitude behavior allowed us to analytically view the latent social and cognitive factors that significantly inform people’s affinity for solitude and their solitude behavior. This study is valuable in two ways. First, theoretical and empirical approaches derived from this current study suggest ways of conceptualizing solitude attitudes and behavior. Second, study findings account for the antecedents and consequences of affinity for solitude. Theoretical relations and several implications associated with college students and recreation management were presented. Additionally, the limitations of the study followed by suggestions for improvements and possible directions for future research were discussed.

PhD / People with a chronic illness, such as Parkinson’s disease, often live in the community for many years while the illness becomes progressively more debilitating. Little is known about how such people control the impact the disease has upon their various roles in life. This study employed naturalistic qualitative research methods to investigate how people with Parkinson’s disease and their partners continue to actively participate as members of their social community. Using in-depth semi-structured, focused interviews, participants with Parkinson’s disease and their partners were asked to name and describe roles that occupied their daily activity. They were asked about their most significant occupational roles, what they did in these roles, the knowledge or strategies they employed to deal with barriers to occupational role performance, and the personal meaning such roles held. Four basic themes evolved from the data: the impact of the disease on occupational role performance, or ‘doing’, secondary personal limitations to occupational role performance, secondary social limitations to occupational role performance and cumulative barriers to occupational role performance. Loss of control over choice and manner of engagement in occupational roles was a significant element of all four themes. Sense of self and sense of social fit were identified as major elements that informed participants’ perceptions of control. Participants described a range of diverse responses that they used to actively restore personal control of occupational performance in the face of degenerative illness. Learning new coping styles appeared to be underpinned by a personal set of rules or ‘blueprint’, despite professional input. This blueprint was actualised through a problem identification, problem solving and active engagement cycle that was termed a cycle of control. A conceptual model of a cycle of control was proposed as the final stage of the research. The model represented a way of describing how participants acted to restore a sense of personal control once a specific barrier to occupational role performance had been perceived. The findings of this study support the notion that people with chronic illness, such as Parkinson’s disease, are active and knowledgeable participants in health care, and have occupational histories and experiences that they harness when dealing with barriers to performance. Moreover, the findings demonstrate that people with chronic illness work in tandem with significant role partners to constantly maintain the valued partnership in meaningful occupational roles as the disease progresses. A greater understanding of how people with chronic illness and their partners strive to maintain a sense of personal control can enable occupational therapists to work effectively as ancillary partners in care. A greater understanding of the way in which role partners work together to maintain occupational integrity in their lives would be central to assessment and intervention for community programs for people with chronic illness.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo principal investigar o papel da co-produção como antecedente do controle percebido e a influência deste na satisfação. Informação e escolha de reembolso também são investigadas como potenciais antecedentes do controle percebido, uma vez que co-produção, informação e escolha são consideradas, respectivamente, formas de controle comportamental, cognitivo e de decisão. O controle comportamental refere-se a uma influência direta do indivíduo no ambiente. O controle cognitivo refere-se à interpretação de um indivíduo sobre um evento e tem o ganho de informação como um subtipo de controle. O controle de decisão representa a oportunidade de escolher entre diferentes tipos de ação. Esses três tipos de controle são considerados capazes de aumentar a percepção de controle dos consumidores. Acredita-se que o aumento de controle percebido, por sua vez, é capaz de elevar os níveis de satisfação dos consumidores. Sugere-se ainda que a auto-eficácia e o desejo por controle poderiam influenciar a relação entre controle percebido e satisfação, implicando em maiores níveis de satisfação quando consumidores apresentam maiores níveis de auto-eficácia e de desejo por controle. Dois estudos experimentais de desenho fatorial e intersujeitos foram conduzidos para testar as hipóteses formuladas no capítulo de fundamentação teórica. O primeiro estudo contou com a participação de 97 estudantes de uma universidade brasileira, manipulando co-produção e informação na oferta de uma viagem de férias, enquanto que o segundo contou com 90 estudantes de uma universidade francesa, manipulando co-produção e escolha de reembolso na oferta de uma escrivaninha. A análise dos resultados mostra que co-produção, informação e escolha de reembolso influenciam positivamente a percepção de controle e que esta, por sua vez, afeta de maneira positiva a satisfação. Os estudos não apresentaram suporte para as hipóteses envolvendo moderação da auto-eficácia e do desejo por controle na relação entre controle percebido e satisfação. Esses resultados possuem implicações gerenciais e acadêmicas que são discutidas no capítulo de considerações finais, abrindo espaço para futuras pesquisas sobre o tema. / The main purpose of this research is to investigate the role of co-production as an antecedent of perceived control and the latter’s influence on satisfaction. Information and refund choice are also investigated as potential antecedents of perceived control since coproduction, information, and choice are considered as behavioral, cognitive and decisional control, respectively. Behavioral control refers to an individual’s response which may directly influence the environment. Cognitive control refers to an individual’s interpretation of an event and it presents information gain as a control subtype. Decisional control represents the opportunity to choose among different courses of action. It is considered that these three types of control may enhance consumers’ perception of control. The increase in perceived control, in turn, is capable of raising consumers’ satisfaction levels. Moreover, self-efficacy and desire for control could influence the relationship between perceived control and satisfaction, such that higher levels of satisfaction when consumers exhibit higher levels of self-efficacy and desire of control. Two experimental studies with factorial between subject design were conducted in order to test the hypotheses formulated in the theoretical background chapter. The first study had the participation of 97 students from a Brazilian university, manipulating co-production and information on a vacation travel’s offer, while the second study had the participation of 90 students from a French university, manipulating co-production and refund choice in the offer of a writing desk. Results show that co-production, information, and refund choice positively affect the perception of control, which, in turn, positively affects satisfaction. The studies do not support the hypotheses related to the moderation roles of selfefficacy and desire for control on perceived control and satisfaction relationship. In the last chapter, we discuss managerial and academic implications, making room for future research on the theme.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo principal investigar o papel da co-produção como antecedente do controle percebido e a influência deste na satisfação. Informação e escolha de reembolso também são investigadas como potenciais antecedentes do controle percebido, uma vez que co-produção, informação e escolha são consideradas, respectivamente, formas de controle comportamental, cognitivo e de decisão. O controle comportamental refere-se a uma influência direta do indivíduo no ambiente. O controle cognitivo refere-se à interpretação de um indivíduo sobre um evento e tem o ganho de informação como um subtipo de controle. O controle de decisão representa a oportunidade de escolher entre diferentes tipos de ação. Esses três tipos de controle são considerados capazes de aumentar a percepção de controle dos consumidores. Acredita-se que o aumento de controle percebido, por sua vez, é capaz de elevar os níveis de satisfação dos consumidores. Sugere-se ainda que a auto-eficácia e o desejo por controle poderiam influenciar a relação entre controle percebido e satisfação, implicando em maiores níveis de satisfação quando consumidores apresentam maiores níveis de auto-eficácia e de desejo por controle. Dois estudos experimentais de desenho fatorial e intersujeitos foram conduzidos para testar as hipóteses formuladas no capítulo de fundamentação teórica. O primeiro estudo contou com a participação de 97 estudantes de uma universidade brasileira, manipulando co-produção e informação na oferta de uma viagem de férias, enquanto que o segundo contou com 90 estudantes de uma universidade francesa, manipulando co-produção e escolha de reembolso na oferta de uma escrivaninha. A análise dos resultados mostra que co-produção, informação e escolha de reembolso influenciam positivamente a percepção de controle e que esta, por sua vez, afeta de maneira positiva a satisfação. Os estudos não apresentaram suporte para as hipóteses envolvendo moderação da auto-eficácia e do desejo por controle na relação entre controle percebido e satisfação. Esses resultados possuem implicações gerenciais e acadêmicas que são discutidas no capítulo de considerações finais, abrindo espaço para futuras pesquisas sobre o tema. / The main purpose of this research is to investigate the role of co-production as an antecedent of perceived control and the latter’s influence on satisfaction. Information and refund choice are also investigated as potential antecedents of perceived control since coproduction, information, and choice are considered as behavioral, cognitive and decisional control, respectively. Behavioral control refers to an individual’s response which may directly influence the environment. Cognitive control refers to an individual’s interpretation of an event and it presents information gain as a control subtype. Decisional control represents the opportunity to choose among different courses of action. It is considered that these three types of control may enhance consumers’ perception of control. The increase in perceived control, in turn, is capable of raising consumers’ satisfaction levels. Moreover, self-efficacy and desire for control could influence the relationship between perceived control and satisfaction, such that higher levels of satisfaction when consumers exhibit higher levels of self-efficacy and desire of control. Two experimental studies with factorial between subject design were conducted in order to test the hypotheses formulated in the theoretical background chapter. The first study had the participation of 97 students from a Brazilian university, manipulating co-production and information on a vacation travel’s offer, while the second study had the participation of 90 students from a French university, manipulating co-production and refund choice in the offer of a writing desk. Results show that co-production, information, and refund choice positively affect the perception of control, which, in turn, positively affects satisfaction. The studies do not support the hypotheses related to the moderation roles of selfefficacy and desire for control on perceived control and satisfaction relationship. In the last chapter, we discuss managerial and academic implications, making room for future research on the theme.

abstract: The primary objective of this study was to develop the Perceived Control of the Attribution Process Scale (PCAPS), a measure of metacognitive beliefs of causality, or a perceived control of the attribution process. The PCAPS included two subscales: perceived control of attributions (PCA), and awareness of the motivational consequences of attributions (AMC). Study 1 (a pilot study) generated scale items, explored suitable measurement formats, and provided initial evidence for the validity of an event-specific version of the scale. Study 2 achieved several outcomes; Study 2a provided strong evidence for the validity and reliability of the PCA and AMC subscales, and showed that they represent separate constructs. Study 2b demonstrated the predictive validity of the scale and provided support for the perceived control of the attribution process model. This study revealed that those who adopt these beliefs are significantly more likely to experience autonomy and well-being. Study 2c revealed that these constructs are influenced by context, yet they lead to adaptive outcomes regardless of this contextual-specificity. These findings suggest that there are individual differences in metacognitive beliefs of causality and that these differences have measurable motivational implications. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Educational Psychology 2014

Este trabalho tem por objetivo principal investigar o papel da co-produção como antecedente do controle percebido e a influência deste na satisfação. Informação e escolha de reembolso também são investigadas como potenciais antecedentes do controle percebido, uma vez que co-produção, informação e escolha são consideradas, respectivamente, formas de controle comportamental, cognitivo e de decisão. O controle comportamental refere-se a uma influência direta do indivíduo no ambiente. O controle cognitivo refere-se à interpretação de um indivíduo sobre um evento e tem o ganho de informação como um subtipo de controle. O controle de decisão representa a oportunidade de escolher entre diferentes tipos de ação. Esses três tipos de controle são considerados capazes de aumentar a percepção de controle dos consumidores. Acredita-se que o aumento de controle percebido, por sua vez, é capaz de elevar os níveis de satisfação dos consumidores. Sugere-se ainda que a auto-eficácia e o desejo por controle poderiam influenciar a relação entre controle percebido e satisfação, implicando em maiores níveis de satisfação quando consumidores apresentam maiores níveis de auto-eficácia e de desejo por controle. Dois estudos experimentais de desenho fatorial e intersujeitos foram conduzidos para testar as hipóteses formuladas no capítulo de fundamentação teórica. O primeiro estudo contou com a participação de 97 estudantes de uma universidade brasileira, manipulando co-produção e informação na oferta de uma viagem de férias, enquanto que o segundo contou com 90 estudantes de uma universidade francesa, manipulando co-produção e escolha de reembolso na oferta de uma escrivaninha. A análise dos resultados mostra que co-produção, informação e escolha de reembolso influenciam positivamente a percepção de controle e que esta, por sua vez, afeta de maneira positiva a satisfação. Os estudos não apresentaram suporte para as hipóteses envolvendo moderação da auto-eficácia e do desejo por controle na relação entre controle percebido e satisfação. Esses resultados possuem implicações gerenciais e acadêmicas que são discutidas no capítulo de considerações finais, abrindo espaço para futuras pesquisas sobre o tema. / The main purpose of this research is to investigate the role of co-production as an antecedent of perceived control and the latter’s influence on satisfaction. Information and refund choice are also investigated as potential antecedents of perceived control since coproduction, information, and choice are considered as behavioral, cognitive and decisional control, respectively. Behavioral control refers to an individual’s response which may directly influence the environment. Cognitive control refers to an individual’s interpretation of an event and it presents information gain as a control subtype. Decisional control represents the opportunity to choose among different courses of action. It is considered that these three types of control may enhance consumers’ perception of control. The increase in perceived control, in turn, is capable of raising consumers’ satisfaction levels. Moreover, self-efficacy and desire for control could influence the relationship between perceived control and satisfaction, such that higher levels of satisfaction when consumers exhibit higher levels of self-efficacy and desire of control. Two experimental studies with factorial between subject design were conducted in order to test the hypotheses formulated in the theoretical background chapter. The first study had the participation of 97 students from a Brazilian university, manipulating co-production and information on a vacation travel’s offer, while the second study had the participation of 90 students from a French university, manipulating co-production and refund choice in the offer of a writing desk. Results show that co-production, information, and refund choice positively affect the perception of control, which, in turn, positively affects satisfaction. The studies do not support the hypotheses related to the moderation roles of selfefficacy and desire for control on perceived control and satisfaction relationship. In the last chapter, we discuss managerial and academic implications, making room for future research on the theme.

A series of studies aimed to examine the role of perceived behavioural control in Ajzen's (1985) Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) in a physical activity context with children aged 12-14 years. A broader, more differentiated role of perceived control was envisaged in the theory based on the conceptualisation of control and perceived competence put forward by Skinner (1995). The first two studies examined the role of control with respect to the TPB model variables and past behaviour. Study 1 investigated the relations between intention, behaviour, attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control in 181 children. It was hypothesised that attitude, perceived control and subjective norms would be related to intention and intention to behaviour. In addition, it was hypothesised that the covariation between control and attitude observed in previous studies could be better explained by the specification of a direct path between perceived control and attitude. Path analysis confirmed the theoretical relations between the TPB variables and, uniquely, the existence of a perceived control- attitude path forming a triadic arrangement with attitude and intention. It was concluded that perceived control governed two routes to the formation of intentions: a direct, spontaneousp ath and an indirect, more deliberative path via attitudes. This relationship was subsequently confirmed in a sample of 382 children in Study 2 using latent measures of attitude and control. The study demonstrated that direct attitude-intention and attitude-behaviour paths regulated the intention-behaviour relationship and attenuated the control -intention relationship to zero. Further, past behaviour predicted control but not intentions or prospective behaviour suggesting that perceived control includes judgements regarding previous control experiences. Since Studies I and 2 indicated the diverse influence of control on the TPB variables, Study 3 diversified the perceived control variable according to Skinner's (1995) conceptualisation of control. This was achieved through the inclusion of a measure of self-efficacy alongside perceived control in a study of 1152 children. The resulting non-standard model using both latent and observed measures, indicated that self-efficacy regulated the control-intention relationship, while control remained an indirect predictor of intention via attitudes. It was concluded that the spontaneous pathway was largely due to the aspects of control related to past experiences of confidence or self-efficacy. This justified the diversification of the perceived control variable and indicated that when young people consider the control they have over certain behaviours, they refer to a number of different perceptions. To further examine the role of perceived control and examine the origins of the cognitive variables in the TPB, Study 4 examined perceived control from a human needs perspective in 1088 children. The measures included more general, domain-specific rather than behaviour- specific measures of perceived control and locus of causality (PLOC). The latter variables represented the human needs for competence and autonomy, which are hypothesised to be motivational in nature (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Results indicated that relative autonomy predicted perceived behavioural control and attenuated the control-intention relationship to zero. This suggested that autonomy was the driving force behind the process of intern ali sation, in which a person assimilates a behaviour by continual competence satisfying experiences. A final study aimed to confirm the triadic relationships between attitude, perceived control and intention in the TPB by a cumulative analysis of these relationships using the data from Studies 1-4. Meta-analytical techniques were used to produce cumulative correlations corrected for measurement and sampling error between the TPB relationships. Results indicated that the variation in the correlations may have been due to more than just sampling error, indicating the existence of moderating variables. A path analysis using these correlations indicated that the atti tude- intention relationship in the triadic arrangement tended to be attenuated by the control-intention relationship. This series of studies indicate that Perceived behavioural control is an important and diverse predictor of intention in the TPB. In particular, control was shown to be an antecedent of attitudes as well as a direct predictor of intentions and that spontaneous intention formation from control perceptions may have been due to self-efficacy beliefs and past behavioural beliefs being encompassed by perceived control. Finally, the adoption of self-determination theory indicated that more general motives for engaging in physical activity behaviour were antecedent variables of control, attitudes and intention from a social cognitive approach. Such theories helped interpret the relationships in the TPB, in particular the role of control as an important variable in the process of internalisation.