Perceived control (PC), the degree to which individuals believe they have direct influence over events in their life, is often found to be associated with emotional well-being. Moreover, for over three decades, research has demonstrated that PC fosters health in advanced age. The mediational role of health in the PC and emotion relationship was investigated. Community-dwelling older adults (n = 232) were examined via secondary data analysis from the Aging in Manitoba (AIM) project and the Successful Aging Study (SAS). Separate mediational models were assessed for two different health mediators, self-rated health and health-related restrictions, and for positive and negative emotions. PC was found to benefit both physical and emotional well-being. The evidence of mediation was most compelling in the prediction of negative emotions and health-related restrictions. Findings have implications for treatment interventions in hopes to foster PC which in turn, should promote health and enhance later life emotional well-being.

Perceived control (Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982) and achievement goals (Dweck & Leggett, 1988) are two widely studied motivational constructs that influence students’ emotions and achievement. The central focus of this dissertation was to explore the associations between achievement goals and perceived control in three studies. Each study used a separate cohort of first-year college students taken from the Motivation and Academic Achievement (MAACH) Project (1992-2005, N = 10,053). Study 1 (n = 752) was descriptive and tested the associations between goals, control, and attributions. The results demonstrated that primary control was very clearly defined by the controllability dimension of attributions; however, the other variables were less clear. The purpose of Study 2 (n = 360) was to test for reciprocal relationships between goals and control by using a two-wave four-variable cross-lag panel model. The best predictor of each Time 2 variable was its corresponding Time 1 counterpart. Additionally, the results showed that Time 1 mastery goals positively predicted Time 2 primary and secondary control, but no other relationships emerged. Study 3 (n = 251) extended the relationships between goals and control to predict students’ emotions and achievement. The direct and indirect effects implied by the following longitudinal model were tested: goals → control → emotions → achievement (Pekrun, 2006). Mastery goals positively predicted primary and secondary control, whereas performance goals positively predicted primary control only. Primary control was the main mediator between goals and negative emotions. Additionally, primary control had a positive direct effect on achievement, and thus mediated the effects of both mastery and performance goals on this outcome. Secondary control had a negative direct effect on achievement and consequently acted as a negative mediator between mastery goals and achievement. For mastery goals, anger, anxiety, and boredom functioned as positive mediators with achievement. These emotions also positively mediated the effects of primary control on achievement. Results of the three studies are discussed in terms of contributions to the separate literatures on achievement goals and perceived control and in terms of implications for students in new and challenging achievement settings.

Perceived control (Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982) and achievement goals (Dweck & Leggett, 1988) are two widely studied motivational constructs that influence students’ emotions and achievement. The central focus of this dissertation was to explore the associations between achievement goals and perceived control in three studies. Each study used a separate cohort of first-year college students taken from the Motivation and Academic Achievement (MAACH) Project (1992-2005, N = 10,053). Study 1 (n = 752) was descriptive and tested the associations between goals, control, and attributions. The results demonstrated that primary control was very clearly defined by the controllability dimension of attributions; however, the other variables were less clear. The purpose of Study 2 (n = 360) was to test for reciprocal relationships between goals and control by using a two-wave four-variable cross-lag panel model. The best predictor of each Time 2 variable was its corresponding Time 1 counterpart. Additionally, the results showed that Time 1 mastery goals positively predicted Time 2 primary and secondary control, but no other relationships emerged. Study 3 (n = 251) extended the relationships between goals and control to predict students’ emotions and achievement. The direct and indirect effects implied by the following longitudinal model were tested: goals → control → emotions → achievement (Pekrun, 2006). Mastery goals positively predicted primary and secondary control, whereas performance goals positively predicted primary control only. Primary control was the main mediator between goals and negative emotions. Additionally, primary control had a positive direct effect on achievement, and thus mediated the effects of both mastery and performance goals on this outcome. Secondary control had a negative direct effect on achievement and consequently acted as a negative mediator between mastery goals and achievement. For mastery goals, anger, anxiety, and boredom functioned as positive mediators with achievement. These emotions also positively mediated the effects of primary control on achievement. Results of the three studies are discussed in terms of contributions to the separate literatures on achievement goals and perceived control and in terms of implications for students in new and challenging achievement settings.

Perceived control (PC), the degree to which individuals believe they have direct influence over events in their life, is often found to be associated with emotional well-being. Moreover, for over three decades, research has demonstrated that PC fosters health in advanced age. The mediational role of health in the PC and emotion relationship was investigated. Community-dwelling older adults (n = 232) were examined via secondary data analysis from the Aging in Manitoba (AIM) project and the Successful Aging Study (SAS). Separate mediational models were assessed for two different health mediators, self-rated health and health-related restrictions, and for positive and negative emotions. PC was found to benefit both physical and emotional well-being. The evidence of mediation was most compelling in the prediction of negative emotions and health-related restrictions. Findings have implications for treatment interventions in hopes to foster PC which in turn, should promote health and enhance later life emotional well-being.

This research explores the link between pupils’ perceived control and their level of attendance in school. Whilst there is research into the link between perceived control and disaffection in pupils it has not been possible to identify any research which links school non-attendance to perceived control. Research into pupils’ reasons for non-attendance identified a range of different factors, many of which the author felt could be attributed to perceived control. Forty-one participants took part in the study. Participants were male and female year nine pupils at two secondary schools in the north west of England. Participants were grouped according to their levels of attendance as high (98%+) attenders, mid-range attenders (90-94%) and low (below 80%) levels of attendance. Participants’ levels of perceived control were measured using the Multi-dimensional Measure of Children’s Perceptions of Control (MMCPC) (Connell 1985). This research also explored the pupils’ experiences of school using appreciative inquiry. Responses on the MMCPC were analysed using a one way ANOVA and descriptive statistics. No significant differences were found between scores for each of the attendance groups and the reasons for this are discussed. Thematic analysis of focus groups with an appreciative inquiry structure identified key themes raised by pupils in regard to positive experiences in school. The findings for both parts of the research are discussed and suggestions for the implications for future research and the practice of teachers and educational psychologists supporting attendance in school are made.

This study investigates the relationship between leadership styles (e.g., taskoriented, relationship-oriented and participative leadership style), perceived control, psychological ownership of the job and several volunteers' work attitudes. Particular attention is given to turnover intentions, psychological withdrawal and senses of responsibility. Research participants were 162 volunteer workers from diverse occupational groups across 19 non profit organizations. Results of Persons correlations and mediated regression analyses demonstrated that (a) psychological ownership did not have relationships with turnover intentions and sense of responsibility but was significantly related to psychological withdrawal; (b) task-oriented, relationshiporiented and participative leadership style were positively related to perceived control, (c) perceived control was positively related to psychological ownership; (d) psychological ownership did not have mediating effects between perceived control and the volunteers' work attitudes; (e) perceived control only had a mediating effect between task-oriented leadership and psychological ownership. Recommendations for further research and implications for management are discussed in the final chapter.

In this thesis, I sought to establish whether the mere presence of money differentially affects the perception of competent and autonomous control over life outcomes among people of relatively low and high self-perceived wealth. According to my theoretical perspective regarding the effects of monetary cues, thinking about money should cause people to view themselves in terms of their own relative financial resources. As money is perceived as a resource that enables competent and autonomous control over life outcomes, the presence of money should cause people low in wealth to feel lower in personal control and autonomy and should motivate the preservation or retrieval of a sense of control and autonomy. By contrast, the presence of money should cause the wealthy to feel higher in personal control and autonomy. Three experiments were designed to test hypotheses stemming from this view and to broaden our understanding of how and why money affects cognition and behaviour. In Experiment 1, I tested whether a money prime affected perceived control, autonomy, and need for structure. For people low in self-perceived wealth, money decreased autonomy and control over life outcomes, and increased the need for structure. People high in wealth were not affected by the money prime. In Experiment 2, I examined whether the presence of money had consequences for interactions with others in social environments characterized by low and high structure. In a setting lacking structure, the presence of money caused people of lower socioeconomic status (SES) to prefer less social contact compared to people of higher SES. The interacting effects of money and SES diminished when the environment was structured in nature. In Experiment 3, I tested competing hypotheses regarding whether the presence of money can influence attitudes and beliefs about external sources of control. I found that when people who were lower in wealth were primed with money, versus not, they reported lesser belief in a controlling god. By contrast, when people of higher wealth were primed with money, versus not, they reported greater belief in a controlling god. I discuss my findings vis-à-vis the current perspective and previous money priming research. / Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC); Ontario Graduate Scholarship (OGS)

Previous research presents a paradox in relation to the value of exerting personal control such that personal control is generally reinforcing, but its value may also be limited in some individuals and under certain circumstances. Across two studies, this dissertation takes a step towards exploring the limitations of perceived control at the process-level by manipulating perceived control via the provision of choice. Manuscript 1 examined limitations of perceived control in the context of effort costs and found that actual control, but not illusory control, may be necessary to enhance motivation in the context of physical effort, suggesting that perceived control may be limited in the context of effort. Manuscript 2 examined limitations of perceived control in relation to self-reported symptoms of anhedonia and found that responsivity to personal control was diminished in those with higher levels of anhedonia. Together these studies examined factors associated with limitations in appetitive personal control and suggest avenues for future research exploring perceived control processes and how they may interface with reward processes, which has potential implications for developing interventions to alleviate reward-related deficits found in anhedonia. / Doctor of Philosophy / Past research has shown that exerting personal control (actively influencing things in your life) is generally desired and motivating, but for some individuals and in some circumstances personal control may be less desirable or motivating (sometime people do not want to be in control). Across two studies, this dissertation explored why perceived control (the belief that one has influence over outcomes in one's life) might not be desired or motivating. In both studies, participants experienced perceived control during experiments when they were given choices within computerized games, believing themselves to have control over outcomes in the game. Manuscript 1 examined how perceived control may be less desirable when people must exert physical effort and found that people may be less inclined to believe they have control when their choice leads to a physical effort requirement. Manuscript 2 examined whether people want to be in control when they are experiencing anhedonia, a set of psychiatric symptoms that includes diminished motivation and reduced responses to reward (for example, paying less attention to rewards in the environment). This study found that people with anhedonia symptoms did not seem to want to be in control as much as psychologically healthy people. During the computerized game, people with anhedonia did not try to make their own choices when they had an opportunity to. Together these studies examined different factors associated with people not wanting to be in control or finding personal control less motivating. This research has implications for developing therapies for people with anhedonia, particularly symptoms related to not actively taking control.

The current investigation examined the singular and interactive effects of anxiety sensitivity (AS) and perceived control over anxiety-related events in the prediction of panic symptoms using a biological challenge paradigm. Two hundred and twenty-nine participants (mage = 21.02, SD = 7.55, 124 females) were recruited from the greater Burlington, Vermont community. Results indicated that pre-challenge AS, but not perceived control over anxiety-related events, significantly predicted post-challenge panic attack symptoms, anxiety focused on bodily sensations, and interest in returning for another challenge (behavioral avoidance). There were no interactive effects between AS and perceived control over anxiety-related events. For the physiological measures, pre-challenge AS was predictive of change in skin conductance level (pre-post challenge), and pre-challenge perceived control over anxiety-related events was predictive of change in respiration rate (breathes per minute). No significant effects were evident for heart rate and there were no significant interactive effects between AS and perceived control over anxiety-related events for any of the physiological variables. Findings of the investigation are discussed in relation to the role of AS and perceived control over anxiety-related events in terms of vulnerability for panic psychopathology.

The discrepancy between American Indian and Caucasian children in academic achievement is well documented. Theorists suggest a connection between perceived locus of control and the level of educational performance. This study first sought to determine if the factor structure of a measure of the perception of lo cu s of control ( Multidimensional Measure of Children's Perceptions of Control) was similar for Caucasian and American Indian (Oglala Lakota) children. Second, the study sought to determine if there were differences between the groups on the MMCPC subtest scores. Finally, the study sought to determine the relationship between locus of control and academic achievement in Oglala Lakota children. The study found the the factor structure of the MMCPC was similar for both groups. There were significant differences between the responses of Oglala Lakota and Caucasian children on the Powerful Others and Unknown Source of Control subtests of the MMCPC. However, there was no significant difference between the groups on the Internal Source of Control subtest. This is contrary to previous research. An inverse relationship was found between unknown locus of control and academic achievement in the Oglala Lakota group.