L'expression des gènes est finement régulée dans la cellule et soumise à de multiples contrôles-qualité. Cette régulation intervient à différents niveaux, de façon à garantir une synthèse efficace des produits fonctionnels de l'expression génique, et pour assurer une adaptation à un changement environnemental. Notamment, les régulations transcriptionnelles sont cruciales pour contrôler la cinétique et le niveau d'expression des gènes. La transcription pervasive est une transcription généralisée non-codante et instable qui fut révélée chez la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Bien que son potentiel régulateur ait été démontré de façon ponctuelle, la question de sa fonctionnalité globale restait ouverte. Lors de ma thèse, j'ai pu montrer l'existence de phénomènes multiples d'interférence transcriptionnelle liés à la transcription pervasive, pour co-réguler un ensemble de gènes entre la phase exponentielle et la quiescence. En effet, la transcription non-codante en antisens des gènes concernés conduit à leur répression, dans des conditions où ils ne doivent pas être exprimés. Le mécanisme de répression fait intervenir des modifications de la chromatine. La levure bourgeonnante, dépourvue de la machinerie d'ARN interférence, présente donc un système fin de régulation de l'expression génique utilisant la transcription pervasive. / In the cell, gene expression is finely tuned and is submitted to different quality-controls. Gene are regulated at different expression levels in order to guarantee a proper synthesis of functional products, and to ensure an optimal adaptation to environmental changes. In particular, transcriptional regulations are critical for gene expression level and kinetics.Pervasive transcription, defined as a generalized non-coding and unstable transcription, was discovered in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Although its regulatory potential was punctually shown, the question of its global functionality still remained. During my PhD, I could show the existence of numerous transcriptional interference mechanisms involved in the co-regulation of a group of genes between exponential phase and quiescence. Indeed, non-coding transcription in antisense to genes promoter leads to its repression in conditions where they have to be switched off. The repression mechanism is allowed by chromatin modifications.Hence, budding yeast that lacks RNA interference machinery has developed a fine regulation system using pervasive transcription.

Ces dernières décennies ont été marquées par la découverte de la transcription dite « cachée » ou « pervasive ». Il a été en effet montré que la majeure partie du génome des eucaryotes est transcrite, donnant naissance à la formation de nombreux ARNs non-codants. La délimitation des unités de transcription apparait essentielle dans le contrôle de l’expression des gènes mais également dans le maintien de l’intégrité des processus associés à l’ADN en limitant notamment l’apparition de conflits avec la transcription. Dans ce contexte, l’initiation et la terminaison de la transcription représentent des étapes clés dans le partitionnement du génome et le métabolisme des ARNs. Nous avons montré que certains facteurs de transcription, appelés GRFs (General Regulatory Factors) chez la levure S. cerevisiae, jouent un rôle important dans le contrôle de la transcription pervasive à la fois au niveau de l’initiation mais également de la terminaison de la transcription et sont également requis pour assurer la fidélité de la transcription des gènes codant les ARN messagers. Nous avons prouvé que les GRFs liés au niveau des régions promotrices sont capables d’induire la terminaison de la transcription en bloquant physiquement la progression d’ARN polymérases issues de la translecture des terminateurs situés en amont. D’après nos études, cette voie de terminaison appelée « roadblock » est très répandue à l’échelle du génome et joue un rôle important dans la protection des promoteurs contre l’interférence transcriptionnelle. Nous avons également découvert que les GRFs limitent la transcription pervasive en obstruant les sites d’initiations ectopiques situés à proximité de leur site de fixation sur l’ADN. Ces facteurs sont aussi impliqués dans le contrôle de l’expression des gènes codants en favorisant l’utilisation de sites d’initiations les plus appropriés, c’est-à-dire, permettant la synthèse d’ARNs ayant un fort potentiel codant. Le rôle des GRFs dans le contrôle de l’initiation apparait intimement lié à leur capacité à correctement positionner les nucléosomes au niveau des promoteurs en collaboration avec les facteurs de remodelage de la chromatine. / The last decades have been marked by the discovery of pervasive transcription. Indeed, many studies have shown that transcription by RNA polymerase II is not restricted to annotated regions but is widespread in eukaryotic genomes, leading to the production of a plethora of non-coding RNAs. Precise delimitation of transcriptional units appears to be essential to ensure robust fidelity of gene expression and to maintain the integrity of DNA-associated events by preventing the occurrence of conflicts with transcription. In this respect, accurate transcription initiation and termination represent crucial mechanisms to partition the genome and define the correct processing of RNA molecules. Here, we show that yeast general regulatory factors (GRFs), a class of highly expressed transcription regulators, control pervasive transcription at the level of initiation and termination and are also involved in the fidelity of initiation of mRNA-coding genes. We demonstrate that GRFs bound at promoter regions can elicit transcription termination by physically impeding the progression of polymerases mainly deriving from readthrough transcription at upstream canonical termination sites. We provide evidence that this termination pathway named roadblock is widespread throughout the yeast genome and protects promoter regions from transcriptional interference. Furthermore, we establish that the presence of general regulatory factors also limits pervasive transcription at the level of initiation, notably by occluding spurious transcription start sites present in the vicinity of their binding sites. We also unveil the importance of these factors in promoting correct transcription start site selection at mRNA-coding genes thus favouring the synthesis of transcripts with an appropriate coding potential. Finally, we determine that the role of GRFs in controlling proper initiation is intimately linked to their ability to correctly position nucleosomes in promoters, a role that occurs independently from but in cooperation with chromatin remodelers.

A caracterização em larga escala do transcritoma de diferentes organismos revelou um cenário complexo da expressão gênica, levando a identificação de inúmeros transcritos produzidos ao longo dos genomas de eucariotos e procariotos. Esse fenômeno recebeu o nome de transcrição pervasiva e tem sido fonte de estudos na busca de novos RNAs com importâncias regulatórias e também transcritos envolvidos na tradução de proteínas ainda não caracterizadas. A abundância de dados de transcritômica e proteômica, além de informações completas a respeito do genoma, fazem do extremófilo halofílico Halobacterium salinarum, um organismo modelo ideal para os estudos da transcrição pervasiva. Esse micro-organismo pertence ao grupo Archaea, o último dos três domínios da vida a ser descrito e com características compartilhadas entre bactérias e eucariotos. Através do uso da técnica de differential RNA-seq (dRNA-seq), a qual permite a distinção entre transcritos primários e processados, identificamos 179 TSSaRNAs em H. salinarum, esses pequenos RNAs estão associados ao início de transcrição e ainda não haviam sido descritos em archaea. A aplicação do dRNA-seq em amostras de RNA extraídas ao longo da curva de crescimento permitiu a identificação de 4540 TSS no genoma de H. salinarum NRC-1. Parte desses inícios de transcrição está localizada upstream a genes conhecidos, permitindo a identificação de inícios de transcrição em 1545 genes. 59,2% desses inícios de transcrição estão localizados até 10 pb. de distância do códon de início de tradução, confirmando a ausência de regiões UTRs em grande parte dos genes. A análise de expressão, em diferentes condições, das regiões relacionadas a inícios de transcrição antisense a genes revelou que a maioria dessas regiões apresenta um perfil de expressão correlacionado com os genes na fita oposta, indicando um possível papel regulatório desses transcritos. De forma similar, a análise da expressão de inícios de transcrição intergênicos permitiu a identificação de 132 regiões diferencialmente expressas e que não estão relacionadas a nenhum outro elemento no genoma de H. salinarum NRC-1. A análise comparativa com dados de proteômica revela que algumas dessas regiões podem estar envolvidas com a produção de pequenas proteínas. Além disso, a identificação de 1365 inícios de transcrição internos a genes sugere que a produção de transcritos intragênicos (intraRNAs) seja um fenômeno amplamente distribuído no genoma desse halófilo. Experimentos de Northern blot confirmaram a produção de um transcrito correspondente a porção final do gene VNG_RS05220, e experimentos de Western blot revelaram que a tradução desses intraRNAs é responsável pela produção de pequenas proteínas correspondentes a domínios proteicos individuais, com importante papel funcional em condições específicas de crescimento. A análise de inícios de transcrição upstream a regiões codificantes de domínios similares em bactérias e outras archaea sugere que a produção de intraRNAs codificantes é um fenômeno amplamente distribuído em procariotos e pode ser responsável pelo aumento da diversidade do proteoma através da geração de isoformas de proteínas a partir de um único gene. Por fim, a análise de dados de RNA-seq, em conjunto com a busca por assinaturas conhecidas de término de transcrição em archaea, permitiu a identificação da posição final de 58 genes. Os dados obtidos a partir dos experimentos e análises realizados ajudam a traçar um panorama mais completo do transcritoma de H. salinarum NRC-1 e revelam a presença de novos transcritos que podem ser amplamente distribuídos em procariotos e apresentar importantes papéis funcionais. / The large-scale transcriptome characterization of different organisms revealed a highly complex scenario of gene expression, leading to the identification of numerous transcripts in the genomes of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. This phenomenon has been named pervasive transcription and has been an important source for the search of new RNAs with regulatory functions or involved in the translation of unknown proteins. The abundance of transcriptomic and proteomic data, as well as complete information regarding the genome, allowed the halophilic extremophile Halobacterium salinarum to be an ideal model organism for studies of pervasive transcription. This microorganism belongs to the Archaea group, the last one of the three domains of life to be described, which presents shared characteristics with bacteria and eukaryotes. The use of differential RNA-seq (dRNA-seq) approach, which allows the distinction between primary and processed transcripts, allowed the identification of 179 TSSaRNAs, small RNAs associated with the transcription initiation in H. salinarum. The application of dRNA-seq in RNA samples collected along the growth curve allowed the identification of 4540 transcription start sites (TSS) in H. salinarum NRC-1. Some of these transcription initiation are located upstream to known genes, enabling the identification of TSSs for 1545 genes. 59.2% of these positions are located up to 10 bp away from the translation initiation codon, confirming that most of genes are leaderless. The expression analysis of regions related to antisense TSS under different conditions revealed that most of these regions have a correlated expression profile with genes in the opposite strand, indicating a possible regulatory role. Similarly, analysis of the expression of intergenic TSS allowed the identification of 132 differentially expressed regions that are not related to any other element in H. salinarum NRC-1 genome. Integration with proteomic data reveals that some of these regions may be involved in the production of small proteins. The identification of 1365 TSS located within genes suggests that the production of intragenic RNAs (intraRNAs) is a widely distributed phenomenon in H. salinarum NRC-1 genome. Northern blot experiments confirmed the production of a transcript corresponding to the final portion of VNG_RS05220 gene and Western blot experiments also revealed that the translation of intraRNAs is responsible for producing small proteins corresponding to individual protein domains with important functional role in specific growth conditions. Analysis of TSS upstream to the coding regions of similar protein domains in bacteria and other archaea suggests that the production of coding intraRNAs is a widely distributed phenomenon in prokaryotes and may be responsible for the increased proteome diversity through the generation of protein isoforms from a unique gene. Finally, the RNA-seq data analysis, combined with a search for known signatures for transcription termination in archaea, allowed the identification of the final position of 58 genes. The present work help to give a more complete picture of H. salinarum transcriptional landscape and reveals the presence of new transcripts that can be widely distributed in prokaryotes, with important functional roles.