A cultura do citros é produzida mundialmente, sendo consumidos in natura ou na forma de produtos industrializados. Os frutos cítricos são hospedeiros de muitos patógenos. A pinta preta é uma doença que afeta a citricultura, e tem como agente causal Guignardia citricarpa Kiely. A pinta preta dos citros é controlada mais comumente com defensivos sintéticos, mas esta prática tem acarretado em consequências indesejáveis, tais como, aumento do custo de produção, contaminação do meio ambiente, envenenamento de produtores e consumidores. Em vista disso, faz-se necessário a procura por novos defensivos agrícolas alternativos de baixo impacto ambiental. Desde muito tempo, diversos estudos têm mostrado a ação antagônica de inúmeras linhagens dos fungos do gênero Trichoderma sobre outros fungos. Embora existam estudos sobre o controle de Guignardia citricarpa kiely com espécies de Trichoderma, é sabido que a variabilidade genética entre linhagens do antagonista e do patógeno apresentam uma consequência diferencial na eficiência do controle. Este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar a capacidade antagonista de quatro linhagens de Trichoderma spp sobre Guignardia citricarpa, buscando identificar os isolados que possam ser aplicadas nos cultivos de citros no Rio Grande do Sul, com incidência da pinta preta. Para tal estudo foram feitos teste de antagonismo e teste de compostos voláteis com as linhagens T1A, T4, T17 e T8 de Tricodema spp. Avaliação da atividade enzimática quitinolítica com as linhagens T1A e T17 e avaliação da sobrevivência dos conídeos dos isolados T1A e T17 de Trichoderma spp. na parte aérea das mudas de laranjeira da variedade valência. Os isolados T8, T4, T1A e T17 de Trichoderma spp. em cultura dupla apresentam maior velocidade de crescimento que o isolado A49/11 de Guignardia citricarpa, estas mesmas linhagens em cultura dupla desenvolveram micoparasitismo sobre o isolado A49/11 de Guignardia citricarpa. Os isolados T8, T4, T1A e T17 de Trichoderma spp. foram capazes de inibir o crescimento micelial do isolado A49/11 de Guignardia citricarpa por emissão de metabólitos voláteis. Os isolados T1A e T17 de Trichoderma spp. liberaram quitinases ativas na presença de micélio desativado de G. citricarpa e Trichoderma spp. A população de Trichoderma spp. aspergida na parte aérea das plantas reduz acentuadamente no período de trinta dias, porém ainda mantém uma concentração que possivelmente pode agir como agente de controle biológico. Sendo assim as linhagens de Trichoderma utilizadas neste trabalho podem ser uma alternativa aos defensivos sintéticos para o controle da pinta preta dos citros. / The culture of citrus is produced worldwide, being consumed in natura or as industrialized products. The citric fruits, such as the orange trees, host many pathogens. The black spot is one disease that affects the citrus culture and has as its usual cause agent Guignardia citricarpa Kiely. The black spot of citrus is more commonly controlled with synthetic pesticides, but this measure has caused undesirable consequences such as the increase of production costs, environment contamination, producers and consumer poisoning. Due to this fact, it is necessary the search for new alternatives of agricultural pesticides of low environmental impact. Since long time ago, several studies have shown the opposite action of several lineages of fungi of genre Trichoderma over other fungi. Although there are studies about the control of Guignardia citricarpa kiely with species of Trichoderma, it is known that the genetic variability of the antagonist and the pathogens show a significant consequence in the efficiency control. This paper has as its objective to evaluate the antagonist capacity of four lineages of Trichoderma spp in controlling Guignardia citricarpa, looking for the identification of isolated ones that could be applied in the citrus cropping in Rio Grande do Sul, with incidence of the black spot. For this study, antagonism tests and volatile compounds tests were carried out with lineages T1A, T4, T17 and T8 of Tricodema spp. Evaluation of enzyme chitinolytic with lineages T1A and T17and evaluation survival of conidium of isolated T1A and T17 de Trichoderma spp in the top part of seedling of orange trees of the Valencia type. The isolated T8, T4, T1A and T17 of Trichoderma spp. in coupled culture show faster speed growing than the isolated A49/11 of Guignardia citricarpa, the same lineages of coupled culture have developed mycoparasitism over the isolated A49/11 of Guignardia citricarpa. The isolated T8, T4, T1A and T17 of Trichoderma spp were capable of inhibiting the mycelia growing of isolated A49/11 of Guignardia citricarpa by emission of volatile metabolites. The isolated T1A and T17 of Trichoderma spp released active chitinases in the presence of non active mycelium of G. citricarpa and Trichoderma spp. The population of Trichoderma spp. sprayed in the top parts of plants sharply reduces in the period of thirty day, however it still maintains a concentration that can possibly acts as a biologic control agent. As a consequence the lineages of Trichoderma spp. used in this paper can be an alternative to synthetic pesticides to control the citrus black spot.

Piper aduncum naturalmente encontrada na Amazônia e no sudeste do Brasil e Piper hispidinervum nativa do Acre são conhecidas pelos seus metabólitos secundários com atividade sobre insetos. Dentre os principais insetos-praga associados à produção agrícola, destacam-se Anticarsia gemmatalis e Spodoptera frugiperda. Este estudo objetivou avaliar os efeitos dos extratos hexânico, acetato de etila e etanólico de folhas de P. aduncum e P. hispidinervum sobre a mortalidade, duração dos períodos larval e pupal, peso, largura e comprimento das pupas de A. gemmatalis e S. frugiperda. A mortalidade larval de A. gemmatalis e S. frugiperda foi afetada pelos extratos de P. aduncum e P. hispidinervum. As taxas de mortalidade de A. gemmatalis nos ensaios com P. hispidinervum foram de 100% (hexano e acetato de etila) com CL50 de 2,34 e 4,93 mg/mL, respectivamente, seguido pelos extratos de P. aduncum com 93,3% (hexano) e 90% (acetato de etila) com CL50 de 6,35 e 5,79 mg/mL, respectivamente. Com o extrato etanólico de ambas as plantas, houve baixas taxas de mortalidade variando de 10,0% a 23,3%. A duração da fase larval foi afetada em todos os extratos testados, tanto em A. gemmatalis quanto em S. frugiperda. A duração da fase pupal de S. frugiperda não foi afetada nos extratos acetato de etila de P. aduncum e etanólico de P. hispidinervum. O peso das pupas de ambos os insetos foi reduzido em todos os extratos das duas plantas. Alterações no comprimento e na largura das pupas foram observadas apenas em extratos de P. hispidinervum. Malformações em pupas e adultos de A. gemmatalis ocorreram em extrato hexânico de P. hispidnervum. Esses efeitos podem ser explicados pela presença de fenilpropanóides e sesquiterpenos nos extratos de P. aduncum e de fenilpropanóides, sesquiterpenos, um monoterpeno e um flavonóide nos extratos de P. hispidinervum, identificados por cromatografia gasosa acoplada à espectrometria de massas. Assim, essas plantas podem apresentar potencial inseticida no controle de A. gemmatalis e S. frugiperda. / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, CAPES. / Piper aduncum found naturally in the Amazon and in southeastern Brazil and Piper hispidinervum Acre native are known for their secondary metabolites with biological activity on insects. Among the main insect pests associated with agricultural production, stand out Anticarsia gemmatalis and Spodoptera frugiperda. This study evaluated the effects of extracts hexane, ethyl acetate and ethanol leaves of P. aduncum and P. hispidinervum on mortality, length of larval and pupal periods, weight, width and length of the pupae of A. gemmatalis and S. frugiperda. The larval mortality A. gemmatalis and S. frugiperda was affected by the extracts P. aduncum and P. hispidinervum. Mortality rates in A. gemmatalis with P. hispidinervum assays were 100% (hexane and ethyl acetate) to LC50 of 2.34 and 4.93 mg / mL, respectively, followed by P. aduncum extracts 93,3% (hexane) and 90% (ethyl acetate) LC50 of 6.35 and 5.79 mg / mL, respectively. With the ethanolic extracts of both plants was low mortality rates ranging from 10% to 23.3%. The larval stage was affected in all the extracts tested, both in A. gemmatalis as in S. frugiperda. The duration of the pupal stage of S. frugiperda was not affected in ethyl acetate extracts of P. aduncum and ethanol of P. hispidinervum. The weight of the pupae of both insects was reduced by all extracts of the two plants. Changes in the length and width of the pupae were observed only in P. hispidinervum extracts. Malformations in pupae and adults of A. gemmatalis occurred in hexane extract of P. hispidnervum. These effects can be explained by the presence of phenylpropanoids and sesquiterpenes in P. aduncum extracts and phenylpropanoids, sesquiterpenes, a monoterpene and a flavonoid in P. hispidinervum identified by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Thus, these plants could present potential insecticide in control of A. gemmatalis and S. frugiperda.

Orientador: Maria Lígia Rodrigues Macedo / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-26T06:33:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dantzger_Miriam_D.pdf: 2351280 bytes, checksum: b2da4015dedd7611bbce146ad9143d6f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Resumo: Os inibidores de proteinases extraídos de plantas têm se mostrado promissores como um método alternativo no combate aos insetos-pragas. Neste estudo, um inibidor de peptidase foi isolado de sementes de Clitoria fairchildiana (Papilionoideae), denominado CFPI, caracterizado funcional e estruturalmente e sua atividade inseticida foi avaliada. CFPI foi purificado por exclusão molecular, seguido por coluna de interação hidrofóbica e apresentou um pico majoritário com atividade inibitória após ter sido submetido à filtração com alta resolução. Estudos cinéticos realizados com CFPI purificado mostraram uma atividade inibitória do tipo competitiva contra tripsina e quimotripsina bovinas, com uma estequiometria de inibição de 1:1 para ambas as enzimas. A constante de inibição de CFPI contra tripsina e quimotripsina bovinas foram 3,3 x 10-10 e 1,5 x 10-10 M, respectivamente, revelando uma forte capacidade de ligação. Eletroforese em SDS-Page mostrou que CFPI possui uma única cadeia polipeptídica, com uma massa molecular aparente de 15 kDa, sob condições não redutoras. Entretanto, o inibidor apresentou uma massa acurada de 7973 Daltons determinada por MALDI-TOF, sugerindo que CFPI forme dímeros em solução. Essa característica, aliada à estequiometria de inibição para tripsina e quimotripsina, à constante de inibição (Ki) para ambas as enzimas e ao sequenciamento e alinhamento N-terminal, permitiram classificar CFPI como membro da família Bowman-Birk de inibidores. O inibidor manteve-se estável ao aquecimento progressivo por 30 min a cada temperatura, variando de 37 até 100 ?C e a análise de dicroísmo não mostrou mudanças no espectro a 207 nm após aquecimento à 90 ?C e subsequente resfriamento. Além disso, CFPI mostrou atividade sobre uma ampla faixa de pH (2-10). Em contraste, a redução de CFPI com DTT resultou em perda de atividade inibitória contra tripsina e quimotripsina. CFPI exibiu atividade inibitória considerável contra enzimas tripsinas de Anagasta kuehniella (76%), Diatraea saccharalis (59%) e Heliothis virescens (49%). Suas propriedades inseticidas foram confirmadas a partir do impacto negativo causado no crescimento de A. kuehniella e C. cephalonica. O inibidor exerceu efeito antinutricional sobre A. kuehniella tanto na geração F0 como em F1 / Abstract: Proteinase inhibitors isolated from plants have shown a promising alternative method against insect pests. In this study, a proteinase inhibitor was isolated from Clitoria fairchildiana seeds (CFPI). CFPI was functional and structurally characterized and its insecticidal activity was evaluated. CFPI was purified by molecular exclusion, following by hydrophobic interaction column and showed a majoritarian peak with inhibitory activity after high resolution filtration gel column. Kinetic studies of the purified inhibitor showed a competitive¿type inhibitory activity against bovine trypsin and chymotrypsin, with an inhibition stoichiometry of 1:1 for both enzymes. The inhibition constants against trypsin and chymotrypsin were 3.3 ×10?10 and 1.5 × 10?10 M, respectively, displaying a tight binding property. SDS¿PAGE showed that CFPI has a single polypeptide chain with an apparent molecular mass of 15 kDa under non¿reducing conditions. However, MALDI¿TOF analysis demonstrated a molecular mass of 7.973 Da, suggesting that CFPI forms dimers in solution. This feature, combined with the stoichiometry of inhibition for trypsin and chymotrypsin, the inhibition constant (Ki) for both enzymes and the N-terminal sequencing, allowed classifying CFPI as a member of Bowman-Birk family inhibitors. CFPI remained stable to progressive heating for 30 min to each temperature range of 37 up to 100 °C and CD analysis exhibited no changes in spectra at 207 nm after heating at 90 °C and subsequent cooling. Moreover, CFPI was active over a wide pH range (2¿10). In contrast, reduction with DTT resulted in a loss of inhibitory activity against trypsin and chymotrypsin. CFPI also exhibited remarkable inhibitory activity against larval midgut trypsin enzymes from Anagasta kuehniella (76%), Diatraea saccharalis (59%) and Heliothis virescens (49%). Its insecticidal properties were further analysed by bioassays and confirmed by negative impact on growth of A. kuehniella and C. cephalonica. The inhibitor exhibited antinutritional effect on A. kuehniella in the F0 and F1 generations / Doutorado / Bioquimica / Doutora em Biologia Funcional e Molecular

This thesis investigates aspects of the community ecology of rabbit parasites with particular emphasis upon the gut helminths, utilising a 23 (later extended to 26) year time series of rabbits and their parasites. A clearer understanding of parasite communities can lead to more effective biological control strategies. Rabbits are regarded as a serious pest species throughout Europe and the Antipodes and the use of the myxomatosis virus, as a biological control agent, has already been tried and failed. However, a clearer picture of the parasite community may offer future possibilities for control. Additionally, the rabbit is a good model for other grazing species, as it carries a similar gut helminth community. Drug resistance is an increasing problem in a wide range of parasites. A clearer appreciation of parasite communities could also aid in the search for effective and environmentally sound pathogen control strategies (e.g. via cross immunity or competition with benign species). Theoretical models have revealed the importance of aggregation to the stability of the host parasite relationship, to parasite evolution and to interspecific parasite interactions. A number of models have considered the effect of varying aggregation upon these dynamics with differing outcomes to those where aggregation was a fixed parameter. Here the stability of the distribution for each of the rabbit helminths was examined using Taylor's power law. The analyses revealed that aggregation was not a stable parameter but varied with month, year, host sex, host age, and host myxomatosis status. Evidence for the existence of interspecific parasite interactions in natural systems has been equivocal. Factors influencing parasite intensity were evaluated for the gut helminth. A network of potential interactions between the parasites was revealed. Only month was shown to be of greater influence on the community. Following, from the above analyses, a community model was constructed which incorporated both seasonal forcing and interspecific parasite interactions, with interaction mediated via host immunity. One unexpected emergent property was an interaction between the seasonality and the immune decay rate with slower immune decay resulting in a shift of the immune response out of phase with the species against which it was produced. The model was also used to assess the potential effects of two control strategies, an anticestodal and a single species vaccine. The vaccine had greater effects on the whole community than the anticestodal because of the immune- mediated interactions. The host is also an integral part of the community as the parasite dynamics are linked with that of their host. Therefore an assessment of the parasites' impact upon host condition and fecundity was also undertaken. This revealed a variety of positive and negative associations between the parasites and their host, with potential implications for future host control strategies. This study has shown that ignoring parasite-parasite or parasite-host interactions and interactions of both the host and the parasite with the external environment, could result in a poor description of the community dynamics. Such complexities need to be considered and incorporated into theory if future control strategies for either host or parasites are to be effective.

The false codling moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is one of the major pests of citrus in South Africa, the others being mealybug, Mediterranean fruit fly, bollworm and some mites. Due to problems such as the expense of pesticides, insects evolving pesticide resistance (Hogsette 1999), chemical residue on the skin of export fruit and the negative impact of pesticides on the environment, it became necessary to find alternative methods for pest control (Viggiani 2000). Agathis bishopi (Nixon) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a larval parasitoid of false codling moth known only from the Sundays River Valley area (Sishuba 2003), offers a means of control for the pest. A total of 11 389 navel oranges were collected from various orchards in the Addo/Kirkwood area, and false codling moth larvae infested 36.09% of the fruit. A single parasitoid species, A. bishopi, was reared from these larvae. In 2006 the highest parasitism rate, 11.43%, was recorded in May and in 2007, the highest parasitism rate, 13.27%, was in April. Agathis bishopi parasitizes larvae in instars 2 and 3, possibly due to the accessibility of these younger instars to the female parasitoid and possibly due to the length of the life cycle of this koinobiont. Second instar hosts yielded the highest number of parasitoids, and there was no emergence of parasitoids from fifth instar larvae. Females of A. bishopi live for 18.5 days (n = 20; S.E. = 3.1) and males for 8.25 days (n = 20; S.E. = 1.23). Females produce an average of 23 offspring in a lifetime, while female false codling moths produce about 800 eggs each. A high number of parasitoids will be required per hectare to reduce the population of false codling moth. Captive rearing of A. bishopi proved difficult due to viral and fungal contamination. Agathis bishopi has potential for use in an integrated pest management programme once the hurdle of mass-rearing has been overcome.

A granulovirus isolated from Cryptophlebia leucotreta larvae was shown through restriction endonuclease analysis to be a novel strain (CrleGV-SA). No more than one isolate could be identified from a laboratory culture of C. leucotreta. However, a preliminary examination of restricted DNA profiles of isolates from different geographical regions indicated some minor differences. In surface dose bioassays on artificial diet, LC50 and LC90 values with neonate larvae were estimated to be 4.095 x 103 OBs/ml and 1.185 x 105 OBs/ml respectively. LT50 and LT90 values with neonate larvae were estimated to be 4 days 22 h and 7 days 8 h, respectively. Detached fruit (navel orange) bioassays with neonate larvae indicated that virus concentrations that are likely to be effective in the field range from 1.08 x 107 to 3.819 x 1010 OBs/ml. In surface dose bioassays with fifth instar larvae LC50 and LC90 values were estimated to be 2.678 x 107 OBs/ml and 9.118 x 109 OBs/ml respectively. LT50 and LT90 values were estimated to be 7 days 17 h and 9 days 8 h, respectively. A new artificial diet for mass rearing the host was developed. Microbial contamination of diet was significantly reduced by adding nipagin and sorbic acid to the diet and by surface sterilising C. leucotreta eggs with Sporekill. Almost 20 % more eggs were produced from moths reared on the new diet compared to moths reared on the old diet. A further 9 % improvement in egg production and a reduction in the labour required to produce eggs, was made with the development of a new oviposition cage attached to the moth eclosion box. Virus was mass produced in fifth instar C. leucotreta larvae by surface inoculating diet with the LC90. When 300 individuals were placed onto inoculated diet, 56 % of them were recovered six to 11 days later as infected larvae. Mean larval equivalents was 1.158 x 1011 OBs/larva. When larvae and diet were harvested together, highest yields of virus were achieved at eight days after inoculation. Microbial contamination in semi-purified preparations of CrleGV ranged from 176211 to 433594 (OB:CFU ratio). Half-life of CrleGV in the field was estimated to be less than 1 day on the northern aspect of trees and between 3 - 6 days on the southern aspect. Original activity remaining (OAR) of the virus dropped below 50 % after 5 days on the northern aspect of trees and was still at 69 % on the southern aspect of trees after 3 weeks. In field trials, CrleGV reduced C. leucotreta infestation of navel oranges by up to 60 % for a period of 39 days. CrleGV in combination with augmentation of the C. leucotreta egg parasitoid, Trichogrammatoidea cryptophlebiae, reduced infestation by 70 %. The integration of CrleGV into an integrated pest management (IPM) system for the management of C. leucotreta on citrus is proposed.

The false codling moth (FCM), Cryptophlehia Leucatreta, causes widespread damage to economically important fruit crops throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Fruit are rendered unfit for consumption once they have been stung by FCM larvae. Larval infestation of fruit can lead to significant pre-harvest losses or post-harvest waste, posing a major problem to the citrus industry. Current control of the pest includes the use of chemical pesticides. The larval form of FCM is known to be infected by a granulovirus called Cryptophlebia leucotreta granulovirus (CIGV). Granuloviruses are highly specific against their hosts and are harmless to vertebrates, plants and the environment. The development of CIGV into a biological control agent would offer an attractive and safer alternative for the control of this pest. A full characterisation of CIGV is required prior to the virus being disseminated into the environment. In this project, the characteristics of CIGV will be examined. Viral DNA was extracted from infected larvae and the DNA analysed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Fragmentation profiles of the South African and Cape Verde (CV3) isolates of the virus were compared, revealing distinct differences between them. The size of the CIGV-SA genome was calculated to be 112 kbp, identical to the size of the CV3 isolate. Physical maps for five restriction enzymes were constructed for the CIGV-SA genome. The alignment of these maps with maps the CV3 isolate (for the same enzymes) further highlighted the differences between the isolates. The genetic engineering of granuloviruses could significantly improve the speed of kill of these viruses. Therefore essential genes like egt and granulin were isolated (by PCR) and their position located in the genome. Both genes were sequenced and their phylogeny with other granulin and egt genes investigated. Finally, tbe incidence of CIGV in natural populations of FCM larvae was investigated, by screening field-collected larvae for the presence of the virus. CIGV was successfully detected from dot blots of larval DNA using both radiolabelled and non-radiolabelled probes and by PCR. Trends regarding the incidence of CIGV in natural populations of larvae were also determined.

The false codling moth (FCM), Thaumatotibia (=Cryptophlebia) leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is a serious pest of citrus and other crops in Sub-Saharan Africa. The introduction of the Cryptophlebia leucotreta granulovirus (CrleGV-SA) Cryptogran and Cryptex (biopesticides) has proven to be very effective in the control of FCM. However, markedly lower susceptibility of some codling moth (CM), Cydia pomonella (L.) populations to Cydia pomonella granulovirus (CpGV-M), another granulovirus product used in the control of CM’s in Europe have been reported. Genetic differences between FCM populations in South Africa have also been established. It is therefore possible that differences in the susceptibility of these geographically distinct FCM populations to CrleGV-SA might also exist. To investigate this phenomenon, a benchmark for pathogenecity was established. In continuation of previous work with Cryptogran against the 1st and 5th instar FCM larvae, dose-response relationships were established for all five larval instars of FCM. In surface dose-response bioassays, the LC50 values for the 2nd, 3rd and 4th instars were calculated to be 4.516 x 104, 1.662 x 105 and 2.205 x 106 occlusion bodies (OBs)/ml, respectively. The LC90 values for the 2nd, 3rd and 4th instars were calculated to be 4.287 x 106, 9.992 x 106 and 1.661 x 108 OBs/ml, respectively. Susceptibility to CrleGV-SA was found to decline with larval stage and increase with time of exposure. The protocol was used in guiding bioassays with field collected FCM larvae. Laboratory assays conducted with Cryptogran (at 1.661 x 108 OBs/ml) against field collected FCM larvae from Addo, Kirkwood, Citrusdal and Clanwilliam as well as a standard laboratory colony, showed a significant difference in pathogenecity in only one case. This significant difference was observed between 5th instars from the Addo colony and 5th instars from the other populations. Four geographically distinct FCM colonies from Addo, Citrusdal, Marble Hall and Nelspruit were also established. Since Cryptogran and Cryptex are always targeted against 1st instar FCM larvae in the field, further comparative laboratory assays were conducted with the Addo colony and an old laboratory colony. Cryptogran was significantly more pathogenic than Cryptex against both the Addo and the old colony. However, a high level of heterogeneity was observed in responses within each population.

The initial phase in the development of a biological control strategy is screening of biological control agents. Secondary to this phase is the establishment of accurate, effective application techniques. However, successful control requires a thorough understanding of all factors affecting the relationship between host plant, pathogen and other microbes. The purpose of this study was to screen and identify potential bacterial antagonists against Alternaria, a fungal citrus pathogen, attachment of the antagonists to bees, and bee dissemination of the antagonist to citrus flowers. A total of 568 bacterial epiphytes were screened on agar plates for antagonism against Alternaria. Only eight of these isolates, which were identified as Bacillus subtilis, B licheniformis, B. melcerons, B. polymyxa, B. thermoglycodasius, B. sphaericus, B. amiloliquefaciens, and B. coagulans, showed inhibitory effects on the growth of Alternaria. The most effective isolates were B. subtilis and B. licheniformis. Further screening was done with B. subtilis and B. subtilis commercial powder (Avogreen). These bacteria were sprayed on citrus flowers for colonisation studies. Mean populations of B. subtilis and the commercial powder recovered from the flowers were 104 and 103 cfu/stamen respectively. The organisms colonised the styler end and ovary of the flowers when observed under scanning electron microscope (SEM). Avogreen was placed in an inoculum dispenser, which was attached to the entrance of the hive. Honeybees emerging from the beehive acquired 104 cfu/bee. The powder attached to the thorax and thoracic appendages, as revealed by SEM. One active beehive was placed in an enclosure with fifteen flowering citrus nursery trees in pots for dissemination trials. Mean populations of commercial B. subtilis recovered from the flowers visited by bees were 104 cfu/stamen. Electron microscope studies revealed that the antagonist was colonising the styler end and ovary of the flowers. Field dissemination studies were unsuccessful due to low yields. / Dissertation (Magister Institutiones Agrariae)--University of Pretoria, 2003. / Plant Production and Soil Science / unrestricted

No description available.