<p>Li-ion batteries are not only a technology for the future, they are indeed already the technology of choice for today’s mobile phones, laptops and cordless power tools. Their ability to provide high energy densities inexpensively and in a way which conforms to modern environmental standards is constantly opening up new markets for these batteries. To be able to maintain this trend, it is imperative that all issues which relate safety to performance be studied in the greatest detail. The surface chemistry of the electrode-electrolyte interfaces is intrinsically crucial to Li-ion battery performance and safety. Unfortunately, the reactions occurring at these interfaces are still poorly understood. The aim of this thesis is therefore to increase our understanding of the surface chemistries and stability phenomena at the electrode-electrolyte interfaces for three novel Li-ion battery electrode materials.</p><p>Photoelectron spectroscopy has been used to study the surface chemistry of the anode material AlSb and the cathode materials LiFePO₄ and Li₂FeSiO₄. The cathode materials were both carbon-coated to improve inter-particle contact. The surface chemistry of these electrodes has been investigated in relation to their electrochemical performance and X-ray diffraction obtained structural results. Surface film formation and degradation reactions are also discussed.</p><p>For AlSb, it has been shown that most of the surface layer deposition occurs between 0.50 and 0.01 V <i>vs.</i> Li°/Li⁺ and that cycling performance improves when the lower cut-off potential of 0.50 V is used instead of 0.01 V. For both LiFePO₄ and Li₂FeSiO₄, the surface layer has been found to be very thin and does not provide complete surface coverage. Li₂CO₃ was also found on the surface of Li₂FeSiO₄ on exposure to air; this was found to disappear from the surface in a PC-based electrolyte. These results combine to give the promise of good long-term cycling with increased performance and safety for all three electrode materials studied.</p>

Given the wide range of properties and applications of intermetallic compounds, it is important to achieve a detailed understanding of their structure and bonding. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (XANES) were used to study the electronic structure of several types of pnictides (compounds containing Pn = P, As). ZrAs2, forming a PbCl2-type structure, has been established to be a genuine binary phase that is strictly stoichiometric. At 900 °C, it supports extensive solubility of Ge to form the ternary extension Zr(GexAs1−x)As (0 ≤ x ≤ 0.4). XPS analysis and band structure calculations confirmed that the Ge and As atoms are anionic in character and that the substitution of Ge for As is driven by a depopulation of anion–anion antibonding states. ZrCuSiPn and REMAsO are important representatives of ZrCuSiAs-type materials. The small magnitudes of the binding energy shifts in the XPS spectra of ZrCuSiPn suggest significant covalent character in the Zr–Si, Zr–Pn, and Cu–Pn bonds, consistent with a three-dimensional structure. On progressing from ZrCuSiP to ZrCuSiAs, the charge transfer from metal to Pn atoms becomes less pronounced, as indicated by changes in the intensity of the Cu K-edge and Zr K, L-edge XANES spectra. Binding energy shifts and satellite features of the XPS spectra of REMAsO indicated that bonding in the [REO] layer is ionic, whereas bonding in the [MAs] layer is strongly covalent. Altering the electronic structure of one layer (by M or RE substitution) does not affect the electronic structure of the other layer, consistent with a two-dimensional structure in REMAsO. Metal-rich phosphides M2P (forming Cr2P-, Fe2P-, and Co2P-type structures) and M3P (forming Ni3P-type structures) were examined by XPS and XANES. The P 2p3/2 binding and P K-edge absorption energies decrease with greater ionic character of the M−P bonding and indicate the presence of anionic phosphorus. Interatomic effects play a more important role in affecting the energy shifts in these metal-rich phosphides than in the monophosphides, becoming more pronounced with higher metal concentration. Surprisingly, intraatomic effects dominate in mixed-metal phosphides (Ni1-xMx)2P despite evidence of metal-to-metal charge transfer from the Ni XANES spectra and Ni 2p XPS satellite features.

The main objective for the work described in this PhD thesiswas to formulate a friction model to characterize thefrictional behavior of paper. More specifically, the modelshould explain a phenomenon that is typical for paper grades,viz.: that the level of paper-to-paper friction is dependent onthe direction and the number of previous slides. The modelshould also explain the lubricating effect oflow-molecular-mass lipophilic compounds (LLC) that occur inpaper on paper-to-paper friction. Furthermore, the model shoulddescribe the types of forces that influence paper-to-paperfiction and explain the mechanism by which the LLC decreasepaper-to-paper friction. This thesis consists of a literature review of the basicconcepts of tribology and a summary of the main results andconclusions from four studies on the frictional characteristicsof paper and a study on the friction and adhesion of cellulosesurfaces together with some unpublished material. The purpose of the investigation described in the firstpaper was to explain a phenomenon that is typical for papergrades, viz.: the level of paper-to-paper friction is dependenton the direction and the number of previous slides. Thisbehavior is called“friction hysteresis”by theauthors, and it has its origin in the reorientation of thefibers on the surface of a paper and their alignment relativeto the sliding direction. The second paper describes a study that was aimed atidentifying lubricants that occur natively in paper. Filterpapers were impregnated with model compounds representing woodextractives, i.e. low-molecular-weight lipophilic compounds,which are present in wood, pulp and paper, and thepaper-to-paper friction was determined. The results of thatstudy show that a wood extractive must fulfill severalstructural criteria in order to lubricate a paper surface: Itmust have a hydrophilic group that can attach to the papersurface and a linear hydrocarbon backbone of sufficientlength. Although it is not specifically stated in the second paper,the authors proposed a type of lubrication by which woodextractives decrease paper-to-paper friction that is, ineffect, boundary lubrication. The purpose of the investigationdescribed in the third paper was to clarify whether woodextractives and other low-molecular-mass lipophilic compoundsthat occur in paper can act as boundary lubricants on papersurfaces. The main objective of that study was to investigatethe role of chemical structure of LLC for their orientationrelative to the paper surface, which is an important criterionfor boundary lubrication. Filter papers were impregnated withmagnesium salts of different lipophilic acids, which were usedfor model compounds for the LLC. The deposited layers ofmagnesium salts were characterized by X-ray photoelectronspectroscopy (XPS) and contact angle goniometry and thefriction of the impregnated paper sheets was determined. Theresults show that the degree of lubrication and the resistanceto wear of the layers of a magnesium salt increased withincreasing chain length and increasing degree of linearity ofthe lipophilic acid. Based on the results of that study and ofearlier studies, it is concluded that boundary lubrication isthe type of lubrication by which low-molecular-mass lipophiliccompounds that occur natively in paper decreasepaper-to-paper-friction. In boundary lubrication, surfaces are covered withmonolayers of lubricant molecules that comprise an active headgroup that can attach to the surface, e.g. a carboxyl group,and an inert linear backbone, such as a long saturatedhydrocarbon chain. Such compounds form ordered monolayers onsurfaces, so that the backbone points vertically out of planeof the surface. The friction is then determined by theinteractions between the monolayers, which are weaker than theinteractions between the clean surfaces and this gives a lowerfriction. The fourth paper describes a study on the origin of thedifferences in friction levels between different linerboardsbased on recycled fiber (old corrugated container, OCC). Thesheets were subjected to two extraction stages and analyzedwith respect to surface roughness and their content oflow-molecular-mass lipophilic compounds (LLC). The resultsshowed that a high amount of LLC in the sheets lead to lowfriction, due to lubrication. The fifth paper describes a study that was aimed atdetermining the types of forces that influence the frictionbetween the surfaces of hydrophilic polymers and explaining themechanism by which boundary lubricants decrease the friction.The adhesion and the friction of model systems was measuredwith atomic force microscopy (AFM) using regenerated cellulosefilms and functionalised AFM tips and the effect of fatty acidsand humidity was investigated. The friction significantlyincreased with increasing humidity and that there was a strongcorrelation between the ability of a fatty acid to form ahydrophobic surface and its lubricating performance. Measuredadhesion forces at high humidity were well predicted bytheoretical models that took into account the effect of theLaplace pressure acting in a water meniscus formed aroundcontact regions due to capillary condensation. The resultsindicated that the degree of capillary condensation may beeffectively suppressed by increasing the hydrophobicity of thecontacting surfaces, causing adhesion and friction to decrease.These results suggest that friction between paper surfacesunder ambient conditions is greatly influenced by the degree ofcapillary condensation. Furthermore, lubrication by fatty acidsis achieved by the formation of a vertically oriented,hydrophobic monolayer that can withstand the stresses duringsliding and increase the hydrophobicity of the paper surfaceand thereby suppress capillary condensation. <b>Keywords:</b>Friction, paper-to-paper friction, frictionhysteresis, fibers, orientation, sliding direction, woodextractives, low-molecular-mass lipophilic compounds, boundarylubrication, adhesion, capillary condensation, Laplacepressure, surface forces, JKR theory, gas chromatography-massspectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, contact angle,atomic force microscopy

Recently, materials such as hole conductors (CuI, CuSCN) and light absorbers (Ru-complexes, CuInS2) have been actively investigated for application in nanocrystalline solar cells. In this thesis combinations of these materials have been studied. In the first part of the thesis, various methods were applied to characterize the electronic structure and photoconversion mechanism of the dye molecule Ru(dcbpyH2)2(NCS)2 when combined with materials for the use in photovoltaic devices. Specifically, the adsorption and electronic structure of the dye molecules adsorbed to semiconductors were investigated by means of photoelectron spectroscopy. The results indicate a chemical bond between the dye molecules and the hole conductors (CuI, CuSCN) via the NCS- groups. In addition, preparation of a TiO2/Ru-dye/CuI solid state model system was studied in situ. These experiments showed a partial breaking of the TiO2-dye bond caused by CuI evaporation. Photovoltage measurements were also performed. These investigations showed a shift in the light absorption threshold of the dye molecules adsorbed onto the hole conductors (CuI and CuSCN), indicating new defect states at the dye/CuSCN interface. Also, charge accumulation and transport in solar cells with CuSCN were compared to liquid electrolyte cells. Measurements showed that the lifetime and transport time of electrons in solar cells with CuSCN are much shorter than in electrolyte cells. In the second part of the thesis, the deposition of CuInS2 onto various metal oxides by spray pyrolysis has been studied with x-ray diffraction and photoelectron spectroscopy. The measurements showed that the morphologies of the substrates play a significant role in the formation of CuInS2 layers. Also, the presence of CdS at TiO2 has a positive influence on the formation of CuInS2.

In dye-sensitized solar cells, the functions of light absorption and charge transport are separated. A photosensitive ruthenium-polypyridine dye in the cell absorbs light, injects an electron to a semiconductor and is then regenerated by a redox couple, typically iodide/triiodide. Quantum chemical calculations of the electronic structure of triiodide have been carried out with the restricted active space SCF method, including spin-orbit coupling, and with density functional theory. It was shown that the difference in charge density between the terminal and central atoms results in a splitting of the core levels. The calculations gave a value of the splitting of 0.8 - 1.0 eV for the 3d and 4d levels. Experimentally, the electronic structure has been investigated with photoelectronspectroscopy. The measured terminal/center splitting is 1.1 eV.The spin-orbit interaction of the 4d levels of triiodide has also been calculated. The splitting was determined to be 1.6 eV. The experimental value is 1.7 eV. An assignment of the peaks in the computed spectrum of triiodide was made and the features of the experimental spectrum have beenidentied.The theoretical valence spectrum of triiodide has been computed and assigned. The results can be used in the analysis of photoelectron spectra of the molecule. Information about the electronic structure of the redox couple can help in the understanding of the electron transfer processes and forfurther development of the solar cells.  Furthermore, the solvation structure of the prototype dye, the tris(bipyridine)ruthenium(II) complex, in water and its interaction with iodide and chloride has been studied by means of molecular dynamics simulations. The trajectory analysis showed that the water molecules in the first solvation shell form a chain in between the bipyridine ligands. It was found that the iodide ions are more likely than chloride to enter between the ligands, which can be important for the electron transfer processin the solar cell.

The dye-sensitized solar cell is a promising solar cell technology. In these systems the key process for light to electricity conversion is molecular in nature and is initiated in dye molecules adsorbed at a semiconducting surface. This thesis focuses on the electronic and molecular surface structure of the dye/TiO2 interface, and the experimental results were obtained from surface sensitive X-ray based electron spectroscopic methods. Two families of dyes, triarylamine based organic dyes and ruthenium based inorganic dyes, were investigated. The effect of dye structural modications on the interfacial properties was studied, such as the surface concentrations, dye molecular surface orientation, molecular interactions, and energy level matching. Also, the impact of additional parameters such as the incorporation of coadsorbents and the solvents used for dye sensitization were studied and complementary photoelectrochemical characterization was used to demonstrate functional properties corresponding to changes in the molecular layers. The experiments provided information on how specic structural modications change the frontier electronic structure. The results also showed that the adsorption of the organic dye leads to submolecular electronic changes, and that the dye surface orientations in general favor effcient energy conversion. Moreover, effects of solvents and coadsorbents, on both energy level matching between the dye and the TiO2 substrate and the surfacemolecular structure were quantied.

Allyl methacrylate, AMA was polymerized by chemical initiator and by &amp / #947 / -radiation under different conditions. The polymer obtained is mostly gel type with some soluble fractions at lower conversions. Arrhenius activation energy is 82.3 kJ/mol for chemical initiated polymerization. The polymer was characterized by FT-IR, NMR, DSC, TGA, XPS, XRD, DLS, and MS methods. It was found that about 98-99% of allyl side groups retained as pendant even after completion of the polymerization, while 1-2% may give crosslinking and/or cyclization that yields lactones and anhydrides. The spectroscopic and thermal results of the work showed that the reaction is not cyclopolymerization, but may have end group cyclization. Molecular weight of 1.1x106 was measured by DLS. Therefore, insolubility is due to the high molecular weight of polymer, even in the early stage of polymerization rather than crosslinking. The Tg of PAMA was observed as 94&ordm / C before curing, upon curing at 150-200&ordm / C, Tg increased to 211&ordm / C as measured by DSC. The thermal treatment of polymer at about 350&ordm / C gave anhydride by linkage type degradation, following side group cyclization. The XPS analysis showed the presence of radical fragments of AIBN and CCl4 associated with oligomers. The MS and TGA thermograms showed two or three stage degradations depending on solubility. The first stage was mostly linkage type degradation for the fragmentation of pendant allyl groups at 225-350&ordm / C. In the second stage, at 395-515&ordm / C, the degradation is random scission and depolymerization.

DC and RF magnetron co-sputtering techniques are one of the most suitable techniques in fabrication of thin films with different compositions. In this work, Al2O3 and Si/Al2O3 thin films were fabricated by using magnetron co-sputtering technique. For Al2O3 films, the stoichiometric, optical and crystallographic analyses were performed. For Si contained Al2O3 films, the formation conditions of Si nanocrystals were investigated. To do so, these thin films were sputtered on Si (100) substrates. Post annealing was done in order to clarify the evolution of Al2O3 matrix and Si nanocrystals at different temperatures. Crystallographic properties and size of the nanocrystals were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) method. The variation of the atomic concentrations and bond formations were investigated with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The luminescent behaviors of Si nanocrystals and Al2O3 matrix were investigated with photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. Finally, the characteristic emissions from the matrix and the nanocrystals were separately identified.

Diese Dissertation unter dem Titel Experimentelle Bestimmung der elektronischen Eigenschaften anwendungsrelevanter Grenzflächen organischer Halbleiter mittels Photoelektronenspektroskopie wurde am Leibniz Institut für Festkürper- und Werkstoffforschung (IFW) Dresden am Institut für Festkörperforschung (IFF) unter der Betreuung von Prof. Dr. B. Büchner angefertigt. Zur wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung kamen hierbei zwei Typen anwendungsrelevanter Grenzflächen. Zum einem wurde der Einfluss einer Elektrodenpräparation unter Normalbedingungen mittels ex-situ Reinigungsverfahren im Vergleich zu insitu präparierten Kontakten auf das elektronische Verhalten des organischen Halbleiters Sexithiophen an Grenzflächen zu metallischen Substraten studiert. Als Substratmaterialien kamen hierbei die Metalle Silber, Palladium, Gold und Platin zum Einsatz. In einer zweiten Studie wurden die Grenzflächen der organischen Halbleiter Sexithiophen und Kupfer(II)- Phthalocyanin in Kontakt zu dünnen Filmen des Übergangsmetalloxides La0.7Sr0.3MnO3 untersucht. Auch hier wurde eine vergleichende Untersuchung für ex-situ und in-situ gereinigte La0.7Sr0.3MnO3-Kontakte durchgeführt. Die hierzu verwendeten Filme wurden im IFW Dresden am Institut für Metallische Werkstoffe (IMW) hergestellt. Auch im Rahmen dieser Untersuchungen stand der Einfluss von Sauerstoff auf das elektronische und chemische Verhalten an den Grenzflächen im Vordergrund.

<p>The main objective for the work described in this PhD thesiswas to formulate a friction model to characterize thefrictional behavior of paper. More specifically, the modelshould explain a phenomenon that is typical for paper grades,viz.: that the level of paper-to-paper friction is dependent onthe direction and the number of previous slides. The modelshould also explain the lubricating effect oflow-molecular-mass lipophilic compounds (LLC) that occur inpaper on paper-to-paper friction. Furthermore, the model shoulddescribe the types of forces that influence paper-to-paperfiction and explain the mechanism by which the LLC decreasepaper-to-paper friction.</p><p>This thesis consists of a literature review of the basicconcepts of tribology and a summary of the main results andconclusions from four studies on the frictional characteristicsof paper and a study on the friction and adhesion of cellulosesurfaces together with some unpublished material.</p><p>The purpose of the investigation described in the firstpaper was to explain a phenomenon that is typical for papergrades, viz.: the level of paper-to-paper friction is dependenton the direction and the number of previous slides. Thisbehavior is called“friction hysteresis”by theauthors, and it has its origin in the reorientation of thefibers on the surface of a paper and their alignment relativeto the sliding direction.</p><p>The second paper describes a study that was aimed atidentifying lubricants that occur natively in paper. Filterpapers were impregnated with model compounds representing woodextractives, i.e. low-molecular-weight lipophilic compounds,which are present in wood, pulp and paper, and thepaper-to-paper friction was determined. The results of thatstudy show that a wood extractive must fulfill severalstructural criteria in order to lubricate a paper surface: Itmust have a hydrophilic group that can attach to the papersurface and a linear hydrocarbon backbone of sufficientlength.</p><p>Although it is not specifically stated in the second paper,the authors proposed a type of lubrication by which woodextractives decrease paper-to-paper friction that is, ineffect, boundary lubrication. The purpose of the investigationdescribed in the third paper was to clarify whether woodextractives and other low-molecular-mass lipophilic compoundsthat occur in paper can act as boundary lubricants on papersurfaces. The main objective of that study was to investigatethe role of chemical structure of LLC for their orientationrelative to the paper surface, which is an important criterionfor boundary lubrication. Filter papers were impregnated withmagnesium salts of different lipophilic acids, which were usedfor model compounds for the LLC. The deposited layers ofmagnesium salts were characterized by X-ray photoelectronspectroscopy (XPS) and contact angle goniometry and thefriction of the impregnated paper sheets was determined. Theresults show that the degree of lubrication and the resistanceto wear of the layers of a magnesium salt increased withincreasing chain length and increasing degree of linearity ofthe lipophilic acid. Based on the results of that study and ofearlier studies, it is concluded that boundary lubrication isthe type of lubrication by which low-molecular-mass lipophiliccompounds that occur natively in paper decreasepaper-to-paper-friction.</p><p>In boundary lubrication, surfaces are covered withmonolayers of lubricant molecules that comprise an active headgroup that can attach to the surface, e.g. a carboxyl group,and an inert linear backbone, such as a long saturatedhydrocarbon chain. Such compounds form ordered monolayers onsurfaces, so that the backbone points vertically out of planeof the surface. The friction is then determined by theinteractions between the monolayers, which are weaker than theinteractions between the clean surfaces and this gives a lowerfriction.</p><p>The fourth paper describes a study on the origin of thedifferences in friction levels between different linerboardsbased on recycled fiber (old corrugated container, OCC). Thesheets were subjected to two extraction stages and analyzedwith respect to surface roughness and their content oflow-molecular-mass lipophilic compounds (LLC). The resultsshowed that a high amount of LLC in the sheets lead to lowfriction, due to lubrication.</p><p>The fifth paper describes a study that was aimed atdetermining the types of forces that influence the frictionbetween the surfaces of hydrophilic polymers and explaining themechanism by which boundary lubricants decrease the friction.The adhesion and the friction of model systems was measuredwith atomic force microscopy (AFM) using regenerated cellulosefilms and functionalised AFM tips and the effect of fatty acidsand humidity was investigated. The friction significantlyincreased with increasing humidity and that there was a strongcorrelation between the ability of a fatty acid to form ahydrophobic surface and its lubricating performance. Measuredadhesion forces at high humidity were well predicted bytheoretical models that took into account the effect of theLaplace pressure acting in a water meniscus formed aroundcontact regions due to capillary condensation. The resultsindicated that the degree of capillary condensation may beeffectively suppressed by increasing the hydrophobicity of thecontacting surfaces, causing adhesion and friction to decrease.These results suggest that friction between paper surfacesunder ambient conditions is greatly influenced by the degree ofcapillary condensation. Furthermore, lubrication by fatty acidsis achieved by the formation of a vertically oriented,hydrophobic monolayer that can withstand the stresses duringsliding and increase the hydrophobicity of the paper surfaceand thereby suppress capillary condensation.</p><p><b>Keywords:</b>Friction, paper-to-paper friction, frictionhysteresis, fibers, orientation, sliding direction, woodextractives, low-molecular-mass lipophilic compounds, boundarylubrication, adhesion, capillary condensation, Laplacepressure, surface forces, JKR theory, gas chromatography-massspectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, contact angle,atomic force microscopy</p>