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L’étude de la phrase hypothétique d’après les traités de grammaires arabe médiévaux consiste à déconstruire la manière avec laquelle ce type de phrase a été conçue par les grammairiens classiques. Ces derniers, figures centrales dans le champ linguistique ont apporté un réel écot à la pensée grammaticale ; à partir du parler des Arabes, de la poésie et du Coran, ces acteurs ont élaboré des règles grammaticales, forgeant ainsi la tradition grammaticale arabe. Ils ont mis en lumière plusieurs aspects de la langue, parmi lesquels, l’expression de l’hypothèse, objet de notre recherche.La phrase hypothétique peut être, principalement introduite par l’une des trois particules X, Y et Z, pour exprimer respectivement l’irréel, le potentiel et l’éventuel. Les pronoms et les circonstances servent également à introduire une phrase conditionnelle et affectent le marquage modal de ses verbes. Ils sont dits, les noms conditionnels. Les grammairiens arabes se sont intéressés aux marques modales des verbes et aux marques casuelles des noms au sein de l’énoncé hypothétique. En outre, ils portaient un intérêt particulier aux pratiques langagières qui relevaient de l’exception, dérogeant ainsi à la règle. Cette thèse s’attache à mettre en lumière l’investissement des grammairiens arabes classiques à une époque charnière du VIIIe au XIVe siècle. On leur reconnaît l’assignation de l’énoncé rogatif à un énoncé conditionnel, car selon eux, ils renvoient implicitement à une condition.La question de la phrase hypothétique constitue l’une des pistes investies par les grammairiens classiques malgré leurs convergences, divergences et positionnements par rapport aux normes grammaticales. L’expression de l’hypothèse a suscité des débats et des controverses entre les grammairiens, et plus particulièrement entre ceux de l’école bassorite et ceux de l’école koufite. / The study of the hypothetical sentence according to medieval Arabic grammatical treatises, consists in deconstructing the manner in which this type of sentence was conceived by the classical grammarians. The latter, central figures in the linguistic field, have largely contributed to grammatical thought; from Arabic-speaking, poetry and Qur’an, these actors developed grammatical rules, thus forging the Arabic grammatical tradition. They highlighted several aspects of the language, among which, the expression of the hypothesis, the object of our research.The hypothetical sentence can be, mainly introduced by one of the three particles X, Y and Z, respectively to express the unreal, the potential and the eventual (possible). Pronouns and circumstances also serve to introduce a conditional sentence and affect the modal marking of its verbs. They are said, the conditional names. Arabic grammarians were interested in the modal marks of verbs and casual marks of nouns in the hypothetical statement. In addition, they had a particular interest in the language practices that fell under the exception, thus derogating from the rule. This dissertation aims to highlight the investment of classical Arabic grammarians in a transitional period, from the eighth to the fourteenth century. They are assigned the assignment of the rogatory statement to a conditional statement, because according to them, they implicitly refer to a condition.The question of the hypothetical sentence establishes one of the tracks invested by the classical grammarians, despite their convergences, divergences and positions in relation to grammatical standards. The expression of the hypothesis aroused debates and controversies between the grammarians, more particularly between those of the Basra school and those of the Kufite school.

The soil-borne, rhizosphere-competent, filamentous fungus Trichoderma virens is a well-known biocontrol agent able to control pathogenic fungi through the production of antibiotics, the induction of systemic resistance in host plants, or by directly parasitizing the competing fungus. Competition for iron is another means by which Trichoderma can hinder competing microorganisms, and siderophores are a means by which microorganisms obtain iron. In silico analysis of the T. virens genome suggested that two genes putatively encoding extracellular siderophore-producing nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) were present. In this study, a disruption was created in one of the genes, TvNPS6, to create a mutant unable to produce the NRPS TvNps6 (DeltaTvnps6). Previously, a mutant (DeltaTvsidD) had been generated with a disruption in the second gene (TvSIDD) encoding an NRPS thought to be involved in siderophore biosynthesis. A double mutant (DeltaDeltaTvsidDTvnps6) was generated by transformation of a DeltaTvsidD strain with a vector targeting disruption of TvNPS6. This resulted in transformants disrupted within both the putative siderophore-producing NRPSs. Thus, three mutants were available for analysis of the role of these genes in the ecology of T. virens. Transformants were confirmed by PCR and Southern blotting analysis. Phenotypic characterization of the mutants included both HPLC analysis of siderophore production, growth on agar and in liquid media, conidiation, germination in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, biocontrol against Pythium ultimum, in vitro confrontation against Rhizoctonia solani and growth with iron chelators to determine the contribution of reductive iron assimilation (RIA) compared to that of siderophores. The HPLC analysis demonstrated that T. virens Gv 29-8 (wild-type) produced a single siderophore peak when grown in an iron-depleted medium. This peak was not present in the DeltaTvnps6 and DeltaDeltaTvsidDTvnps6 mutants but was apparent with the DeltaTvsidD mutants. From the HPLC analysis, T. virens evidently produces a coprogen-type siderophore. Few differences were observed in the other phenotypic tests, though hydrogen peroxide showed some small inhibitory effects towards the DeltaTvnps6 mutants. The addition of chelators, which inhibit RIA, exerted some negative effects on all strains growing under iron-limited media, particularly the DeltaTvnps6 and DeltaDeltaTvsidDTvnps6 strains. This study demonstrated that although T. virens has two genes putatively encoding siderophore producing NRPSs, only the TvNPS6 gene was required for extracellular siderophore production. The greater sensitivity of the mutants towards the iron chelators suggests that unlike other other fungi studied, Trichoderma virens utilizes RIA, rather than siderophore production, as the primary means by which the fungus obtains iron in an iron-limited environment.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-04-11T13:49:03Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 vanessa.pdf: 2538261 bytes, checksum: 22a79ec6ec4a9c95e3c0d9514975ea7d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-08-29 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This study presents an analysis both syntactic and semantic of the verb poder in Brazilian Portuguese. To achieve this goal, we started with a literature review, which consisted of works dedicated to the study of auxiliarity and modality in order to determine what these issues imply and what is usually considered for classifying the verb under investigation as an auxiliary and/or modal verb. As foundations of this study, we used two theories, namely, HPSG (Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar Gramática de Estruturas Sintagmáticas Orientadas pelo Núcleo), a model of surface oriented generative grammar, which consists of a phonological, a syntactic and a semantic component, and GL (The Generative Lexicon O Léxico Gerativo), a lexicalist model of semantic interpretation of natural language, which is proposed to deal with problems such as compositionality, semantic creativity, and logical polysemy. Because these models are unable to handle the verb poder of the Brazilian Portuguese as they were originally proposed, it was necessary to use the GL to make some modifications in HPSG, in order to semantically enrich this model of grammar, so that it can cope with the logical polysemy of the verb poder, its behavior as a raising and a control verb, the saturation of its internal argument, as well as to identify when it is an auxiliary verb. The analysis showed that: (a) poder has four meanings inherent to it, namely, CAPACITY, ABILITY, POSSIBILITY and PERMISSION; (b) to saturate the internal argument of poder, the phrase candidate to saturate that argument must be of type [proposition] and the core of that phrase must be of type [event]. In case those types are not identical, the type coercion is applied in order to recover the requested type for that verb; (c) poder is a raising verb when it means POSSIBILITY, in such case it selects no external argument. That is, it accepts as its subject whatever the subject of its VP-complement is; (d) poder is a control verb when it means CAPACITY, ABILITY and/or PERMISSION and in this case it requires that the saturator of its internal argument be of type [entity] when poder means CAPACITY, or of type [animal] when it means ABILITY and/or PERMISSION; (e) poder is an auxiliary verb only when it is a raising verb, because only in this situation it does not impose any selectional restrictions on the external argument and (f ) poder is considered a modal verb because it can express an epistemic notion possibility and at least three non-epistemic notions of modality capacity, ability and permission. / Este trabalho apresenta uma análise tanto sintática quanto semântica do verbo poder do português brasileiro. Para alcançar esse objetivo, partiu-se de uma revisão de literatura, a qual compreendeu trabalhos dedicados ao estudo da auxiliaridade e da modalidade, a fim de verificar o que essas questões implicam e o que geralmente é levado em consideração para classificar o verbo investigado como auxiliar e/ou modal. Como alicerces deste trabalho, foram utilizadas duas teorias, quais sejam, a HPSG (Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar Gramática de Estruturas Sintagmáticas Orientadas pelo Núcleo), um modelo de gramática gerativa orientada pela superfície, a qual é constituída de um componente fonológico, um sintático e um semântico, e o GL (The Generative Lexicon O Léxico Gerativo), um modelo lexicalista de interpretação semântica de língua natural, que se propõe a lidar com problemas como a composicionalidade, a criatividade semântica e a polissemia lógica. Devido ao fato de esses modelos não conseguirem lidar com o verbo poder do português brasileiro como eles foram propostos originalmente, foi necessário utilizar o GL para fazer algumas modificações na HPSG, a fim de enriquecer semanticamente esse modelo de gramática, de modo que ele consiga dar conta da polissemia lógica do verbo poder, de seu comportamento como verbo de alçamento e de controle, da saturação de seu argumento interno, além de identificar quando ele é um verbo auxiliar. A análise mostrou que: (a) quatro são os significados inerentes ao verbo poder, quais sejam, CAPACIDADE, HABILIDADE, PERMISSÃO e POSSIBILIDADE; (b) para saturar o argumento interno do verbo poder, o sintagma candidato a saturador deve ser do tipo [proposição], e o núcleo desse sintagma deve ser do tipo [evento] e, não havendo essa identidade de tipos, recorre-se à aplicação da construção de coerção de tipo para recuperar o tipo solicitado por aquele verbo; (c) poder é verbo de alçamento quando significa POSSIBILIDADE e, nesse caso, não seleciona argumento externo. Ou seja, aceita como sujeito qualquer que seja o sujeito de seu VP-complemento; (d) poder é verbo de controle quando significa CAPACIDADE, HABILIDADE e/ou PERMISSÃO e, nesse caso, requer que o sintagma saturador de seu argumento interno seja ou do tipo [entidade], quando significa CAPACIDADE, ou do tipo [animal], quando significa HABILIDADE e/ou PERMISSÃO; (e) poder só é verbo auxiliar quando é um verbo de alçamento, pois só nessa situação não impõe restrições selecionais quanto ao argumento externo; e (f) poder é considerado um verbo modal porque pode expressar uma noção epistêmica possibilidade e pelo menos três noções não epistêmicas de modalidade capacidade, habilidade e permissão.

The phrasal verb is a unique type of verb phrase that consists of a main verb, usually of only one or two syllables, followed by a particle, that works as a single semantic unit. Such meaning, however, is characteristically expressed in idomatic terms, which poses a formidable problem for students of English as a second language. To be understood, this meaning must be figuratively interpreted as well as literally translated.

No description available.

Ce mémoire présente la conception, la réalisation et les tests effectués pour une architecture générique permettant à une machine de reconnaitre le sens d'un message en utilisant le modèle de la cognition linguistique de l'humain et un environnement commun à celui des humains. À ce jour, les machines reconnaissent des mots clés et répondent en suivant un modèle préfabriqué, tous deux préprogrammés par des humains. Donc, chaque agent informatique muni d'une forme d'interaction avec le public se voit attribuer un certain nombre de questions potentielles avec les réponses associées, parfois préconstruite. C'est-à-dire que la machine possède une base de mots avec un ordre prédéfini de ceux-ci qu'elle peut utiliser, parfois une phrase déjà entièrement construite, que la machine utilise telle qu'elle. L'objectif principal de ce projet est de démontrer qu'il est possible pour la machine de s'approcher du modèle proposé par les linguistes, principalement un modèle proposé par Kleiber, adjoint à un modèle de cognition, celui du STI, et d'extraire le sens d'un message dans le but de l'interpréter Ainsi, il est possible d'établir une forme de dialogue entre un être humain et une machine. Cet objectif est atteint en proposant une nouvelle architecture générique pour le traitement du langage naturel. Contrairement à ce qui est fait habituellement dans ce genre de problématique, les réponses obtenues ne doivent pas être des réponses préconçues, mais bien des phrases générées par la machine à partir de la grammaire de la langue. Les résultats obtenus montrent qu'il est possible de donner un sens aux mots composant un message de manière à ce qu'une machine soit en mesure de l'interpréter dans un langage qui lui est propre. Cela est fait de manière à ce que cette même machine puisse répondre à son interlocuteur, voire éventuellement prendre une décision en rapport avec la conversation.

Le thème général de cette recherche est l'enseignement grammatical dans l'apprentissage de la lecture et de l'écriture. Ce travail s'inscrit dans le cadre du projet AMICAL (Architecture Multi-agents Interactive Compagnon pour l'Apprentissage de la Lecture), auquel participent linguistes et informaticiens. L'objectif de notre étude est d'analyser dans quelle mesure des travaux théoriques actuels en linguistique pourraient permettre de déterminer les connaissances sur la phrase à utiliser dans le cadre de l'enseignement grammatical à partir du début de l'apprentissage de la lecture. Pour atteindre cet objectif, nous observons l'évolution du concept de phrase en grammaire et en linguistique, puis nous examinons l'enseignement grammatical à l'école élémentaire. Ces observations nous conduisent à déterminer deux problèmes : la phrase est une unité difficile à définir et la grammaire scolaire telle qu'elle existe est sans cesse remise en cause, à la fois par les linguistes et par les didacticiens. Après avoir mis en évidence les problèmes scientifiques que l'on rencontre dans le discours grammatical scolaire, nous présentons une théorie linguistique - la Role and Reference Grammar - qui nous semble à même de répondre à nos besoins d'enseignement en nous fournissant des savoirs de référence (structure logique des prédicats, structure syntaxique stratifiée de la phrase, rôle des opérateurs, etc.) qui peuvent être utilisés dans l'objectif d'un enseignement grammatical visant la maîtrise de la communication verbale par la compréhension des liens entre sens et forme. C'est l'interaction entre ces deux éléments qui nous semble constituer le coeur de l'apprentissage grammatical. Enfin, à partir des éléments que nous fournissent les recherches en psychologie cognitive et la théorie à laquelle nous avons choisi de nous référer, nous proposons une organisation de la grammaire de phrase et explicitons les points théoriques qui nous semblent à même de constituer des objets à enseigner.

The phrasal verb is defined as a two-word idiom consisting of a verb and an adverbial or prepositional particle (such as put off for delay or come across for find or meet by chance). The increased use of such constructions in written and spoken modes of English has been noted by Kennedy 1920, Traugott 1972, Meyer 1975, and others. The categories of verb combinations that fall under the heading of phrasal verb are various. An analysis of the construction within grammars of English, from the seventeenth century Latinate grammars to the twentieth century linguistic treatments, reveals some inconsistencies in terminology and definition, posing a problem for ESL teachers and text writers. Most treatments of the structure concern surface form (such as Fraser 1976), but some recent analyses, particularly Woody 1974 and Lindner 1981, attempt to account for the semantics of the combination; however, these studies limit the category of phrasal verbs analyzed to verb + adverbial particle. Although the phrasal verb is an example of what Rutherford 1977 terms 'lexical grammar', a grammatical structure that must be taught together with a specific lexicon, an examination of the description of phrasal verbs within ESL grammars reveals a concentration on the syntactical patterning of the structure. Extensive listings of phrasal verbs (along with their meanings and appropriate use) are found mainly in dictionaries of idioms and two-word verbs (such as Meyer 1975, Cowie and Mackin 1976, Hall 1982, and Courtney 1983). This study suggests that ESL specialists consider both syntax and semantics when presenting and describing phrasal verbs and include what Rivers 1978 terms 'three levels of meaning': lexical, structural or grammatical, and socio-cultural. Because of the large number of phrasal verbs, a problem arises concerning which phrasal verbs should be presented formally in the ESL class. The study cites Larsen 1974, Dulay and Burt 1977, and Turano-Perkins 1979, who suggest that frequency of use should be a criterion in determining the order of grammatical structures to be taught. The study suggests that more research is needed in the area of frequency studies.

Cette étude présente une méthode pour interpréter les phrases post-tonales en analysant le premier et deuxième mouvement du Trio n°2 (1982) du compositeur canadien Clermont Pépin (1926 - 2006). Trois caractéristiques de la phrase musicale (cohérence, continuité et conclusion) sont tirées des recherches de Christopher Hasty et sont appliquées principalement à l'analyse du premier mouvement. L'analyse permet entre autres d'établir une liste des procédés servant à conclure les phrases et à dresser un plan formel du mouvement en tenant compte des différences structurelles des phrases de chaque section. L'analyse du deuxième mouvement, dont la musique comprend une part plus importante de périodicité, joint les caractéristiques de Hasty aux concepts formels tonals (types thématiques, caractéristiques spécifiques des débuts, milieux et fins formels) tels qu'énoncés par William Caplin.