In South Africa a remarkable weight gain is found in black adolescent girls during mid-adolescence, which is not necessarily the case among boys (Kalk, 2001:577) . Anthropometry is one of the most basic methods for determining over-nutrition and malnutrition status. A considerable amount of research is indeed done on obesity, and quite an amount on growth stunting (OS), but few interventions exist for prevention and treatment of OS. The World Health Organization (WHO) has determined that approximately 230 million children world wide are growth stunted (OS) (WHO working group, 1986). Physical activity in children is affected by average or serious malnutrition and influences adolescents' body build and body composition (BC) because they are in a period of development. Hoffman et al. (2006), Mantsena et al. (2005) and Monyeki et al. (2005) have all found that OS children/adolescents are shorter in length and lighter in mass than adolescents that grow normally. But most OS adolescents have shown a higher skin fold-fat percentage as well as a higher body mass index (BMI). Intra-abdominal fat storage is also found in OS adolescents and children, which is a health risk. Cross sectional studies show that physical activity (p A) decrease with up to 50% during adolescence, which influences body composition. Research has indicated that a P A participation peak is reached between aged 13 and 14 years, when boys are more active than girls. What is less clear is how the pattern of adolescent obesity differs in terms of race, gender and age (Popkin & Udry, 1998). Firstly, the aim of this study was to determine what the nature of research is that has been undertaken regarding body composition (BC) of OS and malnourished adolescents in Africa and South America, by means of a literature study. The second aim was to determine which body composition variables best describe changes in BC in adolescents (13-18 years) after participation in a physical activity intervention. Thirdly, the aim was to determine which BC, relations and maturation differences are found between OS and non growth stunted (NOS) adolescents between ages 13 and 18 years. Finally, the aim was to establish whether the physical activity levels and physical activity patterns of adolescents (13 to 18 years) change congruent to age increase. The study was compiled by means of an availability sample by making use of two secondary black schools in Ikageng (Potchefstroom) in the North West Province. The availability sample comprised a control group and an experimental group of black learners each. The study was of a longitudinal study design nature which stretched from March 2004 to September 2006. Adolescents (N=309) in the North West Province (Potchefstroom, South Africa (158 boys, 211 girls) between ages 13 and 18 years were used in this study. All the learners were in grade 8 at the onset of the study 2004. The experimental group participated in a physical activity intervention programme for practically one hour, two days per week after school hours for twenty-three weeks in 2004 and in 2005 they practised three times per week for nineteen weeks (July school holiday excluded). Attendance percentage of the PA programme was noted according to attendance registers with the experimental group split into three categories, namely low (0%-30% attended), average (30%-60%) and high (60% and higher). The control group (N=87) attended no intervention program. BC, middle-to-hip ratio (MHR), body mass index (BMI), percentage body fat (% LV) and skin folds were measured for baseline and again after completion of the intervention programme. Maturation phase was determined by means of two gender specific questionnaires (Tanner Questionnaires). The Previous Physical Activity Recall (PDPAR), compiled by Trost et al. (1999), was used for the study to analyse the PA levels. Statistica (Statsoft Inc 9) and SAS (SAS Institute Inc, edition 8, Cary NC) computer processing packages were used to process the data collected. Descriptive statistics were used to represent BC components and participants. A Repeated measurements co-variance analysis (ANCOVA) (corrected for attendance percentage and gender) variance analysis (ANOVA) over time, with a Bonferroni post hoc analysis to establish how the different variables differ from each other over the various test period in months. The significance of differences found was set on p<0.05. Next the Mann-Whitney U test was applied to calculate the significant differences of certain variables between the GS and non-growth stunted (NGS) adolescents. The Chi-square test was also used to determine the categorical variables, namely differences in the distribution within the five Tanner phases, as well as the differences between the GS and NGS girls and boys separately, with regard to the distribution between the groups with a body fat percentage lower or higher than the median. The technique of multilevel modelling was used for analysing the change in PA data over time. The result gained from the literature clearly indicates that GS generally occurs in adolescents and children in developing countries. It was also found that physical activity is. beneficial to the adolescents in terms of body composition, especially for the boys. According to the body mass index (BM!) values, a small percentage of children are classified as overweight, whilst with methods such as the sum of skin folds calculation of skin fold fat percentage and %BF measured by means of air transfer pletismografie (ADP), a larger percentage of children was classified as "over fat". It has also been found that significant differences occurred between the mass, length, length-for-age-z-score (LOZ) , arm span, middle circumference, hip circumference and lean body mass of the GS (28 girls and 28 boys) and NGS (113 girls and 90 boys) groups. The results also indicated a difference in PA levels of boys in the experimental and control groups after participation in the P A programme. With increase in age and over time there was a decrease in weekend physical activity patterns in both groups (experimental and control) for both genders. The experimental group ended at higher PA level than that of the control group of boys over the 30.75 months period. Opposed to this the girls (152 and 59 subjects respectively) did indeed show significant differences during the week as well as during the weekend with the baseline measurements, whereas the experimental group initially showed higher PA levels. These differences were, however, not more significant during end measurements. Both groups of girls further showed a lower curve of PA than that of the boys. The experimental group of boys and girls, as well as the control groups displayed a decrease in PA over the 30.75 months period. With increase in age and over time, a decrease was observed in PA patterns in both groups for both genders, although the last two measurements showed a slight upward inclination, especially in the experimental group of boys. The results showed a difference in PA patterns in the boys in the experimental and control groups, which can be attributed to the PA intervention. From the literature overview the conclusion can be drawn that African countries and other developing countries, where food scarcity is more common, experience a larger extent of problems with GS. The occurrence of GS in South Africa is average. Hence it can be deduced that growth and development need to be taken into consideration when BC is determined in adolescents. Fat percentage is more sensitive measure of obesity than BMI following participation in a PA intervention programme in town community adolescents. Determining BF percentage by means of skin folds and air replacement pletismografie (ADP) is more accurate than BMI in this specific group of experimental subjects. From this study the conclusion can be drawn that differences occur between GS and NGS adolescents of both genders in certain BC and body proportion components, without a difference in sexual development. With regard to the girls in terms of PA levels, it had another effect as with the boys with the intervention. The experimental group of boys, after 3 years (of which they underwent a PA intervention for 2 years) showed a higher PA level than the control group of boys that did not participate in a PA intervention. From this it can be deduced that this intervention did indeed contribute to differences in PA of boys that participate in physical activity programmes in deprived environments, while strategies different from these will need to be developed for girls from these communities. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

In South Africa a remarkable weight gain is found in black adolescent girls during mid-adolescence, which is not necessarily the case among boys (Kalk, 2001:577) . Anthropometry is one of the most basic methods for determining over-nutrition and malnutrition status. A considerable amount of research is indeed done on obesity, and quite an amount on growth stunting (OS), but few interventions exist for prevention and treatment of OS. The World Health Organization (WHO) has determined that approximately 230 million children world wide are growth stunted (OS) (WHO working group, 1986). Physical activity in children is affected by average or serious malnutrition and influences adolescents' body build and body composition (BC) because they are in a period of development. Hoffman et al. (2006), Mantsena et al. (2005) and Monyeki et al. (2005) have all found that OS children/adolescents are shorter in length and lighter in mass than adolescents that grow normally. But most OS adolescents have shown a higher skin fold-fat percentage as well as a higher body mass index (BMI). Intra-abdominal fat storage is also found in OS adolescents and children, which is a health risk. Cross sectional studies show that physical activity (p A) decrease with up to 50% during adolescence, which influences body composition. Research has indicated that a P A participation peak is reached between aged 13 and 14 years, when boys are more active than girls. What is less clear is how the pattern of adolescent obesity differs in terms of race, gender and age (Popkin & Udry, 1998). Firstly, the aim of this study was to determine what the nature of research is that has been undertaken regarding body composition (BC) of OS and malnourished adolescents in Africa and South America, by means of a literature study. The second aim was to determine which body composition variables best describe changes in BC in adolescents (13-18 years) after participation in a physical activity intervention. Thirdly, the aim was to determine which BC, relations and maturation differences are found between OS and non growth stunted (NOS) adolescents between ages 13 and 18 years. Finally, the aim was to establish whether the physical activity levels and physical activity patterns of adolescents (13 to 18 years) change congruent to age increase. The study was compiled by means of an availability sample by making use of two secondary black schools in Ikageng (Potchefstroom) in the North West Province. The availability sample comprised a control group and an experimental group of black learners each. The study was of a longitudinal study design nature which stretched from March 2004 to September 2006. Adolescents (N=309) in the North West Province (Potchefstroom, South Africa (158 boys, 211 girls) between ages 13 and 18 years were used in this study. All the learners were in grade 8 at the onset of the study 2004. The experimental group participated in a physical activity intervention programme for practically one hour, two days per week after school hours for twenty-three weeks in 2004 and in 2005 they practised three times per week for nineteen weeks (July school holiday excluded). Attendance percentage of the PA programme was noted according to attendance registers with the experimental group split into three categories, namely low (0%-30% attended), average (30%-60%) and high (60% and higher). The control group (N=87) attended no intervention program. BC, middle-to-hip ratio (MHR), body mass index (BMI), percentage body fat (% LV) and skin folds were measured for baseline and again after completion of the intervention programme. Maturation phase was determined by means of two gender specific questionnaires (Tanner Questionnaires). The Previous Physical Activity Recall (PDPAR), compiled by Trost et al. (1999), was used for the study to analyse the PA levels. Statistica (Statsoft Inc 9) and SAS (SAS Institute Inc, edition 8, Cary NC) computer processing packages were used to process the data collected. Descriptive statistics were used to represent BC components and participants. A Repeated measurements co-variance analysis (ANCOVA) (corrected for attendance percentage and gender) variance analysis (ANOVA) over time, with a Bonferroni post hoc analysis to establish how the different variables differ from each other over the various test period in months. The significance of differences found was set on p<0.05. Next the Mann-Whitney U test was applied to calculate the significant differences of certain variables between the GS and non-growth stunted (NGS) adolescents. The Chi-square test was also used to determine the categorical variables, namely differences in the distribution within the five Tanner phases, as well as the differences between the GS and NGS girls and boys separately, with regard to the distribution between the groups with a body fat percentage lower or higher than the median. The technique of multilevel modelling was used for analysing the change in PA data over time. The result gained from the literature clearly indicates that GS generally occurs in adolescents and children in developing countries. It was also found that physical activity is. beneficial to the adolescents in terms of body composition, especially for the boys. According to the body mass index (BM!) values, a small percentage of children are classified as overweight, whilst with methods such as the sum of skin folds calculation of skin fold fat percentage and %BF measured by means of air transfer pletismografie (ADP), a larger percentage of children was classified as "over fat". It has also been found that significant differences occurred between the mass, length, length-for-age-z-score (LOZ) , arm span, middle circumference, hip circumference and lean body mass of the GS (28 girls and 28 boys) and NGS (113 girls and 90 boys) groups. The results also indicated a difference in PA levels of boys in the experimental and control groups after participation in the P A programme. With increase in age and over time there was a decrease in weekend physical activity patterns in both groups (experimental and control) for both genders. The experimental group ended at higher PA level than that of the control group of boys over the 30.75 months period. Opposed to this the girls (152 and 59 subjects respectively) did indeed show significant differences during the week as well as during the weekend with the baseline measurements, whereas the experimental group initially showed higher PA levels. These differences were, however, not more significant during end measurements. Both groups of girls further showed a lower curve of PA than that of the boys. The experimental group of boys and girls, as well as the control groups displayed a decrease in PA over the 30.75 months period. With increase in age and over time, a decrease was observed in PA patterns in both groups for both genders, although the last two measurements showed a slight upward inclination, especially in the experimental group of boys. The results showed a difference in PA patterns in the boys in the experimental and control groups, which can be attributed to the PA intervention. From the literature overview the conclusion can be drawn that African countries and other developing countries, where food scarcity is more common, experience a larger extent of problems with GS. The occurrence of GS in South Africa is average. Hence it can be deduced that growth and development need to be taken into consideration when BC is determined in adolescents. Fat percentage is more sensitive measure of obesity than BMI following participation in a PA intervention programme in town community adolescents. Determining BF percentage by means of skin folds and air replacement pletismografie (ADP) is more accurate than BMI in this specific group of experimental subjects. From this study the conclusion can be drawn that differences occur between GS and NGS adolescents of both genders in certain BC and body proportion components, without a difference in sexual development. With regard to the girls in terms of PA levels, it had another effect as with the boys with the intervention. The experimental group of boys, after 3 years (of which they underwent a PA intervention for 2 years) showed a higher PA level than the control group of boys that did not participate in a PA intervention. From this it can be deduced that this intervention did indeed contribute to differences in PA of boys that participate in physical activity programmes in deprived environments, while strategies different from these will need to be developed for girls from these communities. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

The prevalence of obesity is a growing problem for children and adolescents worldwide (Schwellnus & Derman, 2003:12; Verster, 2001:15; Cameron, 1999:75). Obesity contributes to primary and secondary health risks such as coronary heart disease and diabetes (Kalk, 2001:576). Obesity is inheritable as well as the health disorders associated with the type of obesity (Kalk, 2001:576; Dietz, 1995:157; Garfinkel & Cosina, 1990:511; Bouchard et a/., 1985:64). A possible cause for the increase of obesity is inactivity, and this generates numerous health problems for children and adolescents (Du Toit & Van der Merwe, 2003:49; Verster, 2001:15; Kalk,2001:576; Steinbeck, 2000:28; Cameron, 1999:75; Reilley et a/., 1999:217). Research has shown that regular exercise can lower the risk of obesity and have many health benefits in general (Deheeger et a/., 1997:375).Consequently the participation of physical activity is important for everyone not only for the obese individual (Van Mil et a/., 1999:842). Physical activity has physical as well as psychological benefits such as positive development in self-concept (Walters & Martin, 2000:51). A positive self-concept during adolescence can have an influence on mental and physical health, and the development of a positive self-concept is critical during the adolescent period (Park, 2003:42). Research also indicates that a strong self-concept can lead to an increase in participation physical activity (Park, 2003:47). Physical activity can also be a social opportunity during which self-concept and self-worth can develop (Marsh, 1997:28). The objective of this study firstly was to determine the influence of a 16-week physical activity intervention program on body composition and self-concept of black South African adolescents. The second objective was to determine the incidence of obesity among these adolescents. The third objective was to determine the influence of body composition on self-concept after participation in a 16-week physical activity intervention program. A total of 95 black adolescents (ages 13 to 18) were recruited to participate in the PLAY study (Physical Activity for the Youth). A control group of 24 adolescents did not participate in any exercise, where an experimental group of 71 adolescents did indeed participate in a 16-week physical activity intervention program. Anthropometric measurements and a comprehensive body composition were taken, using skin folds, BMl and the Bod Pod. The subjects completed a self-concept questionnaire (PASWIN2004 computer program). The findings in this study seems to indicate that there was a positive relationship, between physical activity and BMI as well as Bod Pod changes, after a 16-week activity intervention program in the experimental boys group. No further correlations were traced in the other groups. Among all the adolescents (experimental and control groups), were 80.85% overweight, of which 40.42% were classified as obese. This shows that the majority of this group of adolescents were overweight. No significant changes were found in body composition. The girls showed a slight increase in BMI as well as body fat percentage and a decrease in self-concept. This indicates that an increase in body fat can lead to a lower self-concept. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

The diploma thesis is focused on evaluating changes in quality of life in overweight and obese persons. The theoretical part discusses quality of life, various aspects of obesity and the most relevant psychological context. The empirical part includes two studies: 1. Study in overweight / obese persons undergoing physical activity intervention - walking, lasting up to 1 year, and covering 24 female participants. The intervention resulted in a significant effect on the quality of life, assessed using the following instruments: IWQOL-Lite, OWLQOL and WRSM. 2. Study in overweight / obese persons undergoing STOB basic intervention lasting 12 weeks, and covering 17 female participants. The intervention resulted in a significant effect on the quality of life, assessed using the following instruments: IWQOL-Lite, OWLQOL and WRSM. Changes in self-esteem and self-efficacy were also assessed in this population using the instruments: RSE and GSE, respectively. Statistical significance was not achieved in either of these cases, although a trend toward change could be seen according to RSE and GSE, respectively. Keywords: Life satisfaction; quality of life; obesity; physical activity intervention; STOB

The prevalence of obesity is a growing problem for children and adolescents worldwide (Schwellnus & Derman, 2003:12; Verster, 2001:15; Cameron, 1999:75). Obesity contributes to primary and secondary health risks such as coronary heart disease and diabetes (Kalk, 2001:576). Obesity is inheritable as well as the health disorders associated with the type of obesity (Kalk, 2001:576; Dietz, 1995:157; Garfinkel & Cosina, 1990:511; Bouchard et a/., 1985:64). A possible cause for the increase of obesity is inactivity, and this generates numerous health problems for children and adolescents (Du Toit & Van der Merwe, 2003:49; Verster, 2001:15; Kalk,2001:576; Steinbeck, 2000:28; Cameron, 1999:75; Reilley et a/., 1999:217). Research has shown that regular exercise can lower the risk of obesity and have many health benefits in general (Deheeger et a/., 1997:375).Consequently the participation of physical activity is important for everyone not only for the obese individual (Van Mil et a/., 1999:842). Physical activity has physical as well as psychological benefits such as positive development in self-concept (Walters & Martin, 2000:51). A positive self-concept during adolescence can have an influence on mental and physical health, and the development of a positive self-concept is critical during the adolescent period (Park, 2003:42). Research also indicates that a strong self-concept can lead to an increase in participation physical activity (Park, 2003:47). Physical activity can also be a social opportunity during which self-concept and self-worth can develop (Marsh, 1997:28). The objective of this study firstly was to determine the influence of a 16-week physical activity intervention program on body composition and self-concept of black South African adolescents. The second objective was to determine the incidence of obesity among these adolescents. The third objective was to determine the influence of body composition on self-concept after participation in a 16-week physical activity intervention program. A total of 95 black adolescents (ages 13 to 18) were recruited to participate in the PLAY study (Physical Activity for the Youth). A control group of 24 adolescents did not participate in any exercise, where an experimental group of 71 adolescents did indeed participate in a 16-week physical activity intervention program. Anthropometric measurements and a comprehensive body composition were taken, using skin folds, BMl and the Bod Pod. The subjects completed a self-concept questionnaire (PASWIN2004 computer program). The findings in this study seems to indicate that there was a positive relationship, between physical activity and BMI as well as Bod Pod changes, after a 16-week activity intervention program in the experimental boys group. No further correlations were traced in the other groups. Among all the adolescents (experimental and control groups), were 80.85% overweight, of which 40.42% were classified as obese. This shows that the majority of this group of adolescents were overweight. No significant changes were found in body composition. The girls showed a slight increase in BMI as well as body fat percentage and a decrease in self-concept. This indicates that an increase in body fat can lead to a lower self-concept. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

Master of Public Health / Human Nutrition / Richard R. Rosenkranz / Background: Children who obtain insufficient physical activity (PA) have increased risk for chronic diseases. From childhood to adolescence, there is typically a decline in overall PA, with a more rapid decline in girls, at a younger age. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of two types of organized PA instructional conditions (structured no-choice, structured choice) on girls’ PA levels, as compared to free-play at a summer camp in Russia. We hypothesized that free-play would elicit the highest levels of PA. Methods: This study used a within-subjects cross-over trial design. Thirty-two girls (aged 10.7± 0.6yr; BMI percentile 47± 31%) at a Russian summer camp, attended daily 35-minute PA sessions for three weeks. Using the evidence-based Coordinated Approach to Child Health physical activity box, three PA instructional conditions (structured choice, structured no-choice, free-play) were implemented each day. Actical PA monitors collected step count and PA intensity data. Mixed model ANOVAs were used to assess differences in step counts and percentage of time in Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA) by instructional condition. Results: Twenty-five of the 32 participants attended all sessions, and 31 attended at least two of three sessions for each condition. Both structured conditions, no-choice steps/min (mean= 42.7 steps/min; 95%CI= 39.6–45.7; p= 0.0003) and choice condition steps/min (mean= 41.0 steps/min; 95%CI= 37.9–44.1; p= 0.004) were significantly higher than free-play steps/min (mean= 33.4 steps/min; 95%CI= 30.2–36.5). Percent time in MVPA was higher in the no-choice condition (mean= 30.9%; 95%CI= 28.1–33.8; p<0.0001) and choice condition (mean= 30.8%; 95%CI= 27.9–33.7; p< 0.0001) when compared to free-play (mean= 21.2 steps/min; 95%CI=18.2–24.1). There was no difference in steps/min or percentage time in MVPA between both structured conditions. Conclusion: Both types of instruction were superior to free-play with regard to PA level. Although contrary to our hypothesis, our results fit with previous literature that suggests evidence-based instructional interventions can promote higher PA levels in physical education sessions. Our results suggest that well-planned, stimulating PA sessions can increase short-term PA levels in girls compared to free-play opportunities in a Russian summer camp setting.

abstract: The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore the cultural, social, environmental, and gender factors that may influence physical activity (PA) in older Mexican American (MA) men living in Tucson, Arizona. The Mexican origin population is the fastest growing Hispanic subgroup in our nation, increasing from 20.6 million in the year 2000 to 31.8 million in 2010. Arizona has the sixth largest Hispanic population in the United States and the Mexican origin population accounts for 91% of Arizona's Hispanics. Despite the fast growing Mexican population, there are a limited number of studies that examine MAs and PA. There are even fewer interventions created to foster PA among older (≥65 years old) MA men. Fourteen individual interviews were conducted with older MA men living in Tucson, Arizona. Data was collected, organized, and analyzed according to the methodologies of Clark Moustakas and the Social Ecology Model for Health Promotion framework. Six themes emerged which reflected the older MA male's perception of health, masculinity, and physical activity: a) Retirement promotes self-care behaviors, b) Women, health care providers, and the Internet are important in promoting health, c) Aging changes physical activity, d) I take care of myself, e) Physical activity is a personal choice and lifestyle, and f) I learn and make adjustments as needed. Themes were used to create textural and structural descriptions of their experiences. Descriptions were formed into the essence of the phenomenon. The results of this study increase our understanding of health, masculinity, and physical activity in older MA men. This research will inform the development of an evidence-based PA intervention to promote cardiovascular (CV) health in older MA men that may be implemented in a variety of community-based settings. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Nursing 2015

The prevalence of obesity among young children has markedly increased over the past two decades, with more than one-third of American preschoolers now overweight or obese and at risk for lifelong health problems. Physical activity is a recommended obesity prevention strategy, yet preschoolers typically fail to meet recommended daily physical activity guidelines, spending just 15 minutes engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity, compared to six sedentary hours daily. Unstructured play in settings with varied features, such as childcare center playgrounds, potentially plays a significant role in increasing the amount of time preschoolers spend in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). The purposes of this study were first, to compare the intensity and type of preschoolers' physical activity across four distinctly different outdoor play settings; second, to identify particular features in each play setting associated with MVPA and sedentary behavior; and, third, to identify, test, and evaluate environmental modifications to increase preschoolers' MVPA in outdoor play settings. Seventeen 3-5 year-old children participated in repeated unstructured play sessions featuring 16 min of play in each of 4 novel settings: a traditional climber, a wooded natural area, a garden, and an adventure, or "loose parts" playground. Interventions to increase physical activity were introduced to the adventure playground during the first two phases, and to all four settings during the third phase. Physical activity intensity was measured using ActiGraph GT3x+ activity monitors and contextual information concerning motor skills was obtained by trained observers using the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC), adapted to the age and environment of the study. Results show that both play setting design theme and the composition of specific play features within the setting impact the type of motor skills children perform and the amount of MVPA young children accumulate during unstructured play. Findings additionally demonstrate that simple, low-cost modifications to play settings can increase MVPA for targeted subgroups and individual children; outcomes were setting-specific. Study results may be useful to public health and medical workers, parents, educators, playground designers, community planners, and policy makers who focus on increasing preschool children's daily MVPA and decreasing childhood obesity. / Kinesiology