Tree-rings were analyzed to assess the relative importance of slope position and aspect as determinants of the climate-sensitivity of sugar maple and white oak radial growth. Tree size, crown condition, forest and soil composition, and site indices were assessed to document environmental differences between site-types and to verify similarity of stands within the same site-type. Climate-sensitivity was assessed using mean between-tree correlation, principal components analysis, mean sensitivity, regression analysis, and analysis of radial growth decline after severe drought. Ecological differences were found between high and low sites on north and south facing aspects. Sugar maple did not exhibit greater climate-sensitivity than white oak. Both species showed greater climate-sensitivity on upper and south-facing slopes. / Department of Biology

Advances in hillslope hydrology have been numerous in the past two decades. However many of these advances have been highly site specific in nature, without identifying any means of linking processes across different spatial scales. Meaningful Prediction in Ungauged Basins (PUB) requires the understanding and observation of processes across a range of scales in order to draw out typical hydrological controls. Contempory tracer based methods of quantifying a combination of hillslope processes have identified hillslope geology as the main determinant in different catchment response types. A range of hillslope scale models have been developed in the last 20 years, using different levels of detail to simulate hillslope hydrological responses. Often the data heavy requirements of hillslope scale models make them impractical to apply at larger scales. While catchment scale models lack the ability to represent hillslope scale processes. In order to overcome this, a scale applicable model with the ability to represent hillslope and catchment dynamics is required to accurately quantify hillslope and catchment hydrological processes. This study aims to characterize typical hillslope soil type responses through inferring qualitative hillslope descriptions into a numerical catchment scale model allowing for lateral subsurface routing between adjacent soil horizons. Hydrometric and tracer observation are used to describe and quantify dominant hillslope hydrological processes. Simplifications of hillslope process descriptions are used to calibrate the model to represent the subsurface hillslope connectivity. Results show that hillslope scale hydrological process characteristics can be faithfully simulated with quaternary scale climate, land use and soils data, discriminating only between different hillslope soil types. The simplification of hillslope soils into three distinct groups allows for the further derivation of dimensionless descriptors of hillslope hydrological response using the Advection Dispersion Function. Slopes with shallower stratified soils showed rapid responses to rainfall in the soil water, while those with deeper soils and less horizontal stratification showed appreciably slower responses to rainfall, with older hillslope water dominating soil water for longer periods. This identifies soils as a dominant determinant in hillslope runoff characteristics. This allows for the characterization and ultimately a simplified classification of different hillslope soils and their response types, which is applicable at a range of scales. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

The northeast coast of Graham Island is macrotidal, composed of unconsolidated sediments, and subject to extreme wind and wave conditions. Cape Fife coast is erosive, composed of sand to gravel, and is medium to low sloped with intertidal to subtidal bars. The north coast is mainly depositional, very low to steeply sloped, and composed of fine aeolian sands and cobbles. Rose Spit, trending north-northeast separates the two beaches. Cross-shore profiles documented seasonal morphologies, where active summer swash bar development is preceded by concave profile. This study identified that bars on the east coast are linked to erosive hotspots. There was a relationship between wavelength and amplitude of the bar and the erosive nature of the foreshore. It is proposed that bars protect against incident waves. Decadal and seasonal evolution of a portion of the northeast coast was compiled with the combination of aerial photography, bathymetric data and geomorphological mapping.

Bridge Glacier is a prominent eastward-flowing valley glacier located on the east side of the Pacific Ranges within the southern British Columbia Coast Mountains. The terminus of Bridge Glacier has retreated at rates ranging from 0 to 125 m/year over the last 50 years and currently calves into proglacial Bridge Lake. Field investigations of the recently deglaciated terrain at Bridge Glacier in 2002 and 2003 led to the discovery of detrital boles and glacially-sheared stumps. Dendroglaciological analyses of this subfossil wood allowed for the construction of five radiocarbon-controlled floating tree-ring chronologies. The relative age and stratigraphic location of these samples revealed that Bridge Glacier experienced at least four periods of significant advance during the late Holocene: a Tiedemann-aged advance at ca. 3000'4C years BP. an unattributed advance at ca. 1900 '4C years BP. a First Millennial Advance at ca. 1500 '4C years BP. and an early Little Ice Age advance at ca. 700 '4C years BP. Lichenometric investigations at eight terminal and lateral moraine complexes led to the recognition of early Little Ice Age moraine-building events during the late 13th to early 14th centuries. with subsequent Little Ice Age episodes in the mid 15th. early 16th. mid-late 17th, early 18th, mid-late 19th, and early 20th centuries. These interpretations provide an exceptional long-term perspective on the extent and character of a glacier within this region during the late Holocene.

This investigation uses dendrochronologic and radiometric techniques to infer the timing of glacier advance for four ice lobes that are drained by Manatee Creek in a remote valley located in the southern Coast Mountains, British Columbia. Dendroglaciologic evidence exposed by retreating glaciers provides evidence for increasing complexity in the Holocene glacial record, particularly for mid-late Holocene events. Since Holocene ice fronts periodically extended below treeline in the region, previous glacier advances overrode and buried forests beneath till deposits. The dendroglaciologic evidence presented here corroborates the record of glacier advances described for other southern British Columbia Coast Mountain glaciers and details ice front position at ca. 4270 14C yr BP, 3430 14C BP and 2350 14C yr BP. Well-preserved sequences of lateral, nested moraines were mapped and profiled to delineate the boundaries of Manatee and Oluk glaciers. Relative dates provided by lichenometry and dendrochronology were used as limiting dates for the deposition of 5-6 moraines during the late 14th, early 16th, early 18th, 19th, and early-20th Century. Reconstructions of Holocene glacial history offer insight into the regional, climatic regime and add to the discussion about pervasive, millennial-scale cycles.

Processes and mechanisms of bank erosion on the non-tidal, navigable River Thames were identified and investigated using site specific monitoring and extensive geomorphic surveys. As a lowland, impounded river the Thames has little potential for bank erosion associated with reach-scale morphological channel adjustments. In fact, erosion is closely related to local conditions at the bank and significant processes and mechanisms include fluvial entrainment, slumping, and weakening and weathering of in situ bank material. Approximately 38.5km of eroding bankline was measured (-10% of the total length). Average rates of bank erosion monitored ranged from 0.05ni/yr to -0.5m/yr. The relative contribution to bank retreat of each process or mechanism depends on local conditions such as the use of the bank, the type of bank material and the bank geometry and the type of vegetation. Analysis of the causes of bank retreat at 147 sites along the River Thames revealed that erosion was generally influenced by a combination of factors. Navigation related activities contribute to the bank erosion at nearly all sites (-90%) but is solely responsible for erosion at only about 12%. Factors related to the use of the bank and adjacent land contribute to erosion along -65% of the total length of eroding bank but are the sole influence at only -5%. Channel planform and geometry contribute to -53% of observed bank erosion, but are the sole influence at less than <1% of the erosion sites. A review of selected of erosion control techniques applied on the River Thames suggested that solutions tend to be over-engineered and that strategies adopted were not necessarily appropriate for the causes and consequences of the bank erosion. Furthermore, whilst mitigation measures are often incorporated into the solutions, environmental enhancements are rarely included. Assessment of the causes and consequences of erosion has led to the development of a bank erosion management strategy for the River Thames based on geomorphological and sustainability principles. The strategy is presented as a transferable tool through which to achieve sustainable river management.

Morphology related to the South Saskatchewan River in the Outlook Saskatoon region is basically a product of the complex relationships between fluvial activity, glacial and lacustrine history and surficial materials. / During deglaciation, the river experienced numerous major changes before becoming incised in its present location. Channel scars and deltaic-alluvial deposits are widespread. / The present valley proper shows marked local variation in overall width; terrace characteristics; occurrence of slumping, and features of the valley floor including floor and river widths, gradients, braiding, meandering, channel bars and islands, and flood plain characteristics and development. Differences are largely the result of (a) pronounced variations in the resistance to erosion of materials of the valley sides and floor; (b) the influence of an alluvium-filled gut, underlying the river in the south, on width and slumping; and (c) the influence, in the north, of sharp bends which were inherited from a braided network of early high-level channels.

Typescript. / Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1974. / Bibliography: leaves 444-451. / xx, 451 leaves ill., maps

The west Northland, lower miocene, carpet-bag formation, Manukau Breccia, is declared obsolete and replaced by the Waitakere Group (new). This group is established to contain the igneous and proximal sedimentary products of the lower to mid Miocene west Northland volcanic arc and is divided into three subgroups. The northern, Waipoua, Subgroup (new), consists of the Waipoua Basalt and associated volcaniclastic sediments of the Hokianga - Kaihu area. The central, Hukatere, Subgroup (new), contains volcaniclastic and igneous rocks of the Tokatoka – okahukura Peninsula area, Kaipara. The southern, Manukau, Subgroup, contains igneous rocks and associated volcaniclastic sediments of the Waitakere Hills and adjacent areas. The Waitakere Hills and their northern extension to Helensville (c.500 km2) have been systematically mapped at a scale of 1:25000 and found to consist of a number of tilted or gently folded blocks of Manukau Subgroup having a low, overall, west to north-west tilt. Five formations and thirteen members are established. The oldest sediments are volcanic-rich proximal turbidites (Cornwallis Formation, upper Po, lower Miocene) that overlie and interfinger with the more distal flysch of the Waitemata Group to the east. Cornwallis Formation, and many of the overlying sediments, accumulated at bathyal depths (800 – 3000 m+) on the western side of the Waitemata basin. The proximal turbidites were deposited by south-east flowing turbidity currents that passed down submarine canyons from the neritic Kaipara shelf in the north and north-west. Lenticular conglomerates (Albany Conglomerate, Helensville Conglomerate) accumulated in these canyons and distributary channels of the upper and mid fan regions. In uppermost Otaian to mid Altonian times (late lower Miocene), an apron of coarse volcaniclastic sediments (Piha Formation) spread eastwards over the Waitakere Hills area from a growing volcanic pile centred west of the present coastline. Piha Formation contains well-stratified rudites, subsidiary lenticular, cross-bedded and massive rudites, large slump deposits and peripheral submarine extrusions of and site flows, pillows and hyaloclastite. This coarse volcaniclastic belt was deposited on the neritic and upper.bathyal slopes of the volcanic pile and grades eastwards towards the centre of the basin into a fine volcaniclastic belt (Nihotupu Formation) containing well-bedded arenites and lutites, cross-bedded arenites, lenticular conglomerates, slump units and small piles of pillowed andesite. These were deposited at mid to lower bathyal depths. Substantial mid Altonian uplift in the Waitakere Hills was probably connected with eastwards advancing volcanism. The northern area around Muriwai remained marine for a time and several submarine canyons were eroded through the uplifted shelf and filled with pyroclastic-rich sediments (Tirikohua Formation). An extensive, predominantly terrestrial sheet of andesite flows and pyroclastics (Lone Kauri Formation) was erupted over the uplifted central Waitakere Hills area. This sheet vras possibly erupted from the two north-north-west trending, fault-controlled lineations of volcanic necks, craters, plugs, dyke swarms and intrusions that outcrop today along either side of the hills. Volcanian, strombolian and rare pelean eruptions from these centres produced mostly andesitic products plus one dacite dome (watchman Dacite); these were the last known phases of volcanism in the area (upper Pl - ?Sc, lower to mid Miocene). Macrofaunas have been collected from seventy-six localities in the Waitakere Hills. These can be divided into undisplaced bathyal biocoenoses and displaced thanatocoenoses in which neritic and bathyal faunas were mixed during subaqueous mass flow transport. Analysis of these faunas allows recognition of ten neritic and three bathyal macrofaunal biofacies. Remains of the crustacean Callianassa are recorded. From burrow networks (Thalassinoides) developed in bathyal sediments. Sparse ichnocoenoses composed entirely of feeding and dwelling structures produced by burrowing polychaetes, echinoids and possibly sipunculids occur in basin (mid - lower bathyal) and submarine canyon (outer neritic - upper bathyal) sediments around Maori Bay. A canyon wall ichnocoenosis (outer neritic – upper bathyal), produced in semi-consolidated sediments by burrowing polychaetes, decapod crustacea and possibly amphipods and other organisms, occurs south of Maori Bay. Twelve species from nine genera of hermatypic (reef-building) corals occur in mass flow deposits. They are inferred to have come from sporadically developed communities growing on shallow-water boulder banks around volcanic islands. Comparison of the total lower Miocene hermatypic coral fauna of Northland with present day reefs indicates that seasonal sea termperatures were 5 - 7°c warmer than now. Taxonomic descriptions of fossil corals, molluscs, polychaetes, benthonic foraminifera and trace fossils are given. Archesabella bartrumi gen. et sp. nov. is proposed for fossil tubes containing the body casts of sabellid-like worms. The hermatypic coral genus Goniastrea, trace fossil genus Rhizocorallium, and molluscan subgenera Dentalium (Gadilina), Solariella (Solaricida) and Turbo (Marmarostoma), are recorded from New Zealand for the first time. A new subgenus and species of the gastropod Monilea and new species of the gastropod genera Conacmea, Notoacmea (Parvacmea), Tecticrater, solariella (Solaricida), Turbo (Marmarostoma), Agathirses, "Bartrumella" and Vaqinella are described. A new genus and species of nuculanid bivalve, and new species of the mollusca Nucula, Saccella, Dentalium (Gadilina), Turbo (Marmarostoma), Agathirses, Argobuccinum (Ratifusus), Uttleya and Concholepas are but not named. The New Zealand species of the pteropod Vaginella are redescribed and figured, and the ontogeny of the oyster Crenostrea, discussed. The foraminiferal genus Sherbornina is recorded from New Zealand for the first time, together with thirty-nine overseas species. A further seventeen unnamed foraminiferal species are described. Planktonic foraminifera allow division of the Manukau Subgroup into three biostratigraphic units: upper otaian, lower altonian and mid Altonian. Three-fold subdivision of Scott's Altonian is shown to be possible in northern New Zealand. The lower - middle Altonian boundary is based on the Globorotalia (T.) zealandica zealandica datum, supported by both the temporary absence of Globoguadrina dehiscens and the measurements on the rate of chamber expansion in Globigerinoides t. trilobus populations. The middle – upper Altonian boundary is taken as the Globorotalia (G.) miozea miozea datum, supported by both the reappearance of G. dehiscens and the rate of chamber expansion measurements. Uniformitarian and computer approaches allow the thirty-one richest benthonic foraminiferal samples to be grouped into eight neritic and bathyal thanatotopes. Separate analysis of each thanatotope enables approximate depth limits to be placed on each and gives basin depths of 1500 - 3000 m+. Multidimensional scaling technique using Edwards Great Circle distances was found to be the most useful computer method in clustering the samples. Formations of the Waipoua Subgroup are summarised, and the paleogeography and eruptive history of the Waitakere Group is inferred.

This thesis examines the use of remote sensing techniques for the investigation and monitoring of geothermal areas in the Taupo volcanic zone of New Zealand. The research and development of a helicopter-borne video thermal infrared scanner technique and associated computer image processing methods constitutes the major portion of this study. In addition, preliminary results are presented from a related shallow ground temperature study conducted to investigate diurnal, seasonal and meteorological effects on temperatures in active thermal ground and results from a precursory assessment of SPOT-l satellite multispectral imagery obtained over the Waiotapu Geothermal Field for detecting, identifying and mapping characteristic geothermal surface features are also reported. The initial conduct of two video thermal IR scanner test surveys, one using an Inframetrics 525 over portions of the Rotorua Geothermal Field, the other using a FLIR 1000A over portions of the Wairakei-Tauhara Geothermal Field, demonstrated that imagery useful for basic geothermal feature mapping could be obtained in the late summer to early autumn period. Surveying during the hours around dusk was shown to be appropriate. Experimentation established instrument operating settings and defined nominal survey parameters. The real-time video imagery format proved useful as an aid to navigation and as a check on proper instrument set-up and operation- The helicopter platform provided valuable manoeuvrability and control. The results obtained from these two initial surveys aided development of survey design and conduct methodology. The video imagery obtained with both the Inframetrics and FLIR scanners was compatible with New Zealand's PAL standard- Visual TV-VCR inspection of the IR imagery allowed easy identification of a range of natural thermal features. Identification of cultural features aided location of the thermal anomalies. The Inframetrics imagery suffered from serious banding and other minor problems. The FLIR imagery was of a generally higher quality, though it exhibited problems. The fundamental ability to digitize images from the videotapes and apply powerful computer image processing techniques to aid interpretation and analysis was demonstrated. A methodology for pre-processing and enhancing the digitized Inframetrics and FLIR images was developed. Application of these image processing techniques brought out detail unavailable in the grey-level imagery and greatly increased interpretation ability. The demonstrated success of the first two test surveys led to the conduct of the first known large-scale video thermal IR scanner surveys of geothermal fields. Most details of the first of these ate confidential (at the client's request). A complete range of geothermal features was detected and easily recognised and their distribution established thus providing a much more detailed map of the geothermal activity than was previously available. The successful results attained confirmed the survey design and conduct methodology used. The second and largest survey covered the entire Rotorua Geothermal Field (l8 km2). Imagery was obtained with both the Inframetrics and FLIR IR scanners and a visible wavelength video camera. Extensive ground control measurements were made. This comprehensive survey of geothermal activity established a baseline from which change can be monitored The survey identified large scale seepage and submerged thermal input into Lake Rotorua which may be the source of known missing chloride. The first geothermal surface feature changes were identified, thus demonstrating the usefulness of the method for monitoring change. Preliminary image temperature calibration results were obtained and a procedure for constructing visible wavelength-thermal IR composite images was developed. The positive results demonstrated by this survey have led to the helicopter-borne video thermal IR technique being adopted for major geothermal feature mapping and monitoring programmes in New Zealand. Preliminary assessment of the high spatial resolution (20m) SPOT-1 multispectral imagery of the Waiotapu Geothermal Field. showed that the larger geothermal surface features can be detected and identified on a contrast stretched, 3-band colour composite image. A shallow (≤ 1m depth) ground temperature measurement site was established in an area extending from very active to near ambient conditions. Preliminary results show that temperature variations ranging from l-19 °C can occur in the most active ground. These temperature variations exhibit a strong negative correlation with atmospheric prcss111e changes and can introduce large, unexpected inaccuracies in ground temperature measurements.