The soil seed bank in Agathis australis (D. Don) Lindl. (kauri) forests of northern New Zealand is quantified, and its potential role in secondary successions examined. Seed bank data from a number of kauri forest sites stratified by successional time and distance from forest edges are summarized using Detrended Correspondence Analysis (ordination) and linear regression models. A number of issues concerning secondary successions and the soil seed bank are discussed. These include: 1. The relationship between the soil seed bank and extant vegetation. 2. The nature of the soil seed bank and successional time. 3. The nature of the soil seed bank and distance from forest edges. 4. The soil seed bank, canopy gaps and gap regeneration strategies. 5. The nature of the soil seed bank and soil properties. 6. The fruiting phenology, seed rain, and soil seed bank dynamics. The forest sites ranged from 50 years to over 1,000 years old, while distance from forest edges ranged from 0.2 km to 3.5 km. Soil seed bank densities under kauri forests were 134 - 5,388 seeds m-2 with a mean density of 1,320±217 seeds m-2 which is similar to estimates reported for temperate and tropical forest sites elsewhere. The spatial distribution of seeds in the seed bank both within and between sites is highly variable. A total of 6,062 seedlings emerged from the seed bank samples. This represented 62 vascular plant species, 26 (42%) native woody, 19 (30%) native weedy, 16 (26) adventive weedy and 1 (2%) native fern. The species composition of the soil seed bank was not closely related to extant vegetation and only 11%ot canopy and 13% of understorey species were represented in the soil seed bank. Thus, 77% of extant vegetation at any given site is floristically different from that of the soil seed bank. Ordination of the data by detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) suggested that extant vegetation (canopy and understorey) and the soil seed bank contain characteristic floras. The species composition of the seed bank is variable between sites. The viable seed pool is larger under young successional forests than under older mature forests. The number of species also declined with distance from forest edges. Adventive and native weedy species were found in seed banks under mature forests and sites of considerable distances from forest edges. However, the density of the weedy species component of the soil seed bank was at least partly determined by distance from forest edges where such species are common. While buried seed is likely to contribute to the early stages of secondary succession, evidence from canopy gaps suggested that the seedling bank (formerly suppressed understorey component) is more important in gap regeneration than the soil seed bank. DCA analysis revealed that seedling bank species composition of canopy gaps and forest sites were quite different from the soil seed banks, indicating that regeneration stemmed from formerly (suppressed) understorey seedlings. Phenology and seed rain study of a mature forest remnant and a regenerating forest community showed that as little as 5% of the seed input to the forest floor enters the soil seed bank and remains viable for more than one year. Evidence is presented to suggest that in a forest community, secondary succession after large-scale or localised disturbance, is achieved more so by suppressed seedlings and recent seed rain than the soil seed bank. The soil seed bank becomes significant in secondary succession when the subsoil is disturbed by the uprooting of trees or the forest floor is exposed by tree-fall (not covered by tree-fall debris).

Abstract of thesis (doctoral) / Three folded col. maps inserted. Bibliography: p. 427-435.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--West Virginia University, 2010. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains vii, 106 p. : ill. (some col.), maps. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 97-103).

This thesis examines the use of remote sensing techniques for the investigation and monitoring of geothermal areas in the Taupo volcanic zone of New Zealand. The research and development of a helicopter-borne video thermal infrared scanner technique and associated computer image processing methods constitutes the major portion of this study. In addition, preliminary results are presented from a related shallow ground temperature study conducted to investigate diurnal, seasonal and meteorological effects on temperatures in active thermal ground and results from a precursory assessment of SPOT-l satellite multispectral imagery obtained over the Waiotapu Geothermal Field for detecting, identifying and mapping characteristic geothermal surface features are also reported. The initial conduct of two video thermal IR scanner test surveys, one using an Inframetrics 525 over portions of the Rotorua Geothermal Field, the other using a FLIR 1000A over portions of the Wairakei-Tauhara Geothermal Field, demonstrated that imagery useful for basic geothermal feature mapping could be obtained in the late summer to early autumn period. Surveying during the hours around dusk was shown to be appropriate. Experimentation established instrument operating settings and defined nominal survey parameters. The real-time video imagery format proved useful as an aid to navigation and as a check on proper instrument set-up and operation- The helicopter platform provided valuable manoeuvrability and control. The results obtained from these two initial surveys aided development of survey design and conduct methodology. The video imagery obtained with both the Inframetrics and FLIR scanners was compatible with New Zealand's PAL standard- Visual TV-VCR inspection of the IR imagery allowed easy identification of a range of natural thermal features. Identification of cultural features aided location of the thermal anomalies. The Inframetrics imagery suffered from serious banding and other minor problems. The FLIR imagery was of a generally higher quality, though it exhibited problems. The fundamental ability to digitize images from the videotapes and apply powerful computer image processing techniques to aid interpretation and analysis was demonstrated. A methodology for pre-processing and enhancing the digitized Inframetrics and FLIR images was developed. Application of these image processing techniques brought out detail unavailable in the grey-level imagery and greatly increased interpretation ability. The demonstrated success of the first two test surveys led to the conduct of the first known large-scale video thermal IR scanner surveys of geothermal fields. Most details of the first of these ate confidential (at the client's request). A complete range of geothermal features was detected and easily recognised and their distribution established thus providing a much more detailed map of the geothermal activity than was previously available. The successful results attained confirmed the survey design and conduct methodology used. The second and largest survey covered the entire Rotorua Geothermal Field (l8 km2). Imagery was obtained with both the Inframetrics and FLIR IR scanners and a visible wavelength video camera. Extensive ground control measurements were made. This comprehensive survey of geothermal activity established a baseline from which change can be monitored The survey identified large scale seepage and submerged thermal input into Lake Rotorua which may be the source of known missing chloride. The first geothermal surface feature changes were identified, thus demonstrating the usefulness of the method for monitoring change. Preliminary image temperature calibration results were obtained and a procedure for constructing visible wavelength-thermal IR composite images was developed. The positive results demonstrated by this survey have led to the helicopter-borne video thermal IR technique being adopted for major geothermal feature mapping and monitoring programmes in New Zealand. Preliminary assessment of the high spatial resolution (20m) SPOT-1 multispectral imagery of the Waiotapu Geothermal Field. showed that the larger geothermal surface features can be detected and identified on a contrast stretched, 3-band colour composite image. A shallow (≤ 1m depth) ground temperature measurement site was established in an area extending from very active to near ambient conditions. Preliminary results show that temperature variations ranging from l-19 °C can occur in the most active ground. These temperature variations exhibit a strong negative correlation with atmospheric prcss111e changes and can introduce large, unexpected inaccuracies in ground temperature measurements.

In several areas of Auckland, urban development has resulted in flooding and siltation problems that have been both difficult and expensive to manage. This study investigates the fluvial processes of runoff and sediment generation with a pastoral catchment of the Albany Basin and assesses the potential hydrological impacts of urban development with its catchment area. During the study period this catchment was on the fringe of the urban development of Auckland's North Shore. By examining the factors that control runoff and sediment generation within a pastoral catchment, site information that may be useful for controlling runoff and sediment generation within an urbanised Albany Basin is gained. To assess the impacts of urban development, streamflows and suspended sediment yields from catchments representative of three different land uses are compared: pastoral, urban construction and developed urban. Stream channel enlargement indices for a number of nearby catchments with different proportions of urban land cover are also determined and compared. The study shows significant increases in stormflows and suspended sediment yields from catchments that are either fully developed or undergoing construction for urban use. But due to the relatively dry weather experienced during the study period these results are thought to underestimate the impact of urbanising the Albany Basin. The investigation of stream channel enlargement shows that for totally urban catchments stream channel cross-sectional areas may be nearly three times those for pastoral catchments. Methods for controlling the impact of urban development on streamflows, sediment yields and channel enlargement are discussed. It is proposed that by developing techniques where by storm runoff is dispersed and stored within the considerable soil moisture storage capacity of an urban land cover, of the type planned for the Albany Basin, that a considerable reduction in stormflow and sediment generation may be achieved. The study concludes that through careful land use planning and the use of appropriate control structure the impacts of urban development may be reduced to acceptable levels.

This dissertation presents the results of research of physical and biological processes of sedimentation on the shoreface and continental shelf in Pakiri Bay, on the east coast of the Northland Peninsu1a, New Zealand. These environments comprise the subtidal portion of the Pakiri sand body. Sand bodies that are contiguous with unconsolidated sediments of coastal barriers are characteristic of the embayed east coasts of the Auckland and Northland Regions, yet little is known of their geomorphology. Existing models of shoreface and shelf sedimentation afford limited assistance because they were developed in different environments. Factors that distinguish the study area from other coasts include tectonic stability, lack of modern (non-biogenic) sediment inputs, the predominance of currents related to shoaling surface waves, and a sea level stillstand for the last 6,500 years. The model of sedimentation developed is derived from intensive field investigation of the morphology, sedimentology and ecology of the Pakiri Bay shoreface and continental shelf. Investigations of sediment transport entail interpretations of the sediments and sedimentary structures of the seabed, application of existing sediment transport models and the analysis of morphodynamic data. The geomorphology of the Pakiri sediment body is characterized by a regular pattern of morphologic components and associated sediment types. Alongshore variation in these characteristics is generally minor compared with shore normal variation. The shoreface comprises a curvilinear concave surface, that extends offshore from the alongshore bar approximately 1500 m, to water depths of about 22 n. The inner continental shelf comprises an equally curvilinear, mostly convex, surface that slopes seaward to the relatively flat middle continental shelf. Secondary morphological variations result from the presence of large-scale bedforms on the middle continental shelf and landward margin of the inner shelf. The sediments of the shoreface are fine, very well sorted quartz-feldspathic sands of 2 ø mean grain size. The inner shelf sediments grade offshore from a medium sand to very coarse sands and fine gravels (mean grain size 0.0 to 0.5 ø). In contrast the sediments of the mid shelf are very fine sands (mean grain size 2.0 to 2.5 ø), with a mud content of 5 to l0 percent. Carbonate skeletal debris, derived mostly from molluscs, comprises a significant proportion of inner and mid shelf sediments. The concentration of carbonates in the sediments increases offshore from 0 to 5 percent on the shoreface to 30 percent at the base of the inner shelf. The carbonate fraction of the sediments is size graded on the inner shelf and mid shelf in accordance with the grain size characteristics of the non-carbonate fraction. A model of the distribution and abundance of living macrobenthos (mostly of the phyla mollusca) is derived from benthos surveys in Pakiri Bay. Species that are diagnostic of high and low energy environments are characteristic of the shoreface and middle continental shelf respectively. The pattern of carbonate concentration in the sediments of the subtidal sediment body does not correlate with the pattern of modern biogenic production. Highest levels of modern shell production occur across the shoreface, whereas carbonate concentrations are greatest at the base of the inner shelf. Hypotheses are advanced to explain this dichotomy. The geomorphology of the shoreface and inner continental shelf is seen as a response to modern processes of sedimentation. Sediment transport occurs primarily in response to currents related to shoaling waves. Two process regimes are recognized. During typically calm (swe11 wave) conditions the fine sands of the shoreface may be transported landward as a result of an onshore mass transport current. During severe storm events this process may transport bed sediments landward across the inner shelf and middle continental shelf forming the characteristic sediment and morphologic patterns observed. However, during such events this onshore flow is, probably counteracted by return flows that are able to transport eroded foreshore and inshore sediments seaward Key words: Sedimentation, shoreface, continental shelf, wave dominated, carbonated sedimentation, sediment body, facies.

The soil seed bank in Agathis australis (D. Don) Lindl. (kauri) forests of northern New Zealand is quantified, and its potential role in secondary successions examined. Seed bank data from a number of kauri forest sites stratified by successional time and distance from forest edges are summarized using Detrended Correspondence Analysis (ordination) and linear regression models. A number of issues concerning secondary successions and the soil seed bank are discussed. These include: 1. The relationship between the soil seed bank and extant vegetation. 2. The nature of the soil seed bank and successional time. 3. The nature of the soil seed bank and distance from forest edges. 4. The soil seed bank, canopy gaps and gap regeneration strategies. 5. The nature of the soil seed bank and soil properties. 6. The fruiting phenology, seed rain, and soil seed bank dynamics. The forest sites ranged from 50 years to over 1,000 years old, while distance from forest edges ranged from 0.2 km to 3.5 km. Soil seed bank densities under kauri forests were 134 - 5,388 seeds m-2 with a mean density of 1,320±217 seeds m-2 which is similar to estimates reported for temperate and tropical forest sites elsewhere. The spatial distribution of seeds in the seed bank both within and between sites is highly variable. A total of 6,062 seedlings emerged from the seed bank samples. This represented 62 vascular plant species, 26 (42%) native woody, 19 (30%) native weedy, 16 (26) adventive weedy and 1 (2%) native fern. The species composition of the soil seed bank was not closely related to extant vegetation and only 11%ot canopy and 13% of understorey species were represented in the soil seed bank. Thus, 77% of extant vegetation at any given site is floristically different from that of the soil seed bank. Ordination of the data by detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) suggested that extant vegetation (canopy and understorey) and the soil seed bank contain characteristic floras. The species composition of the seed bank is variable between sites. The viable seed pool is larger under young successional forests than under older mature forests. The number of species also declined with distance from forest edges. Adventive and native weedy species were found in seed banks under mature forests and sites of considerable distances from forest edges. However, the density of the weedy species component of the soil seed bank was at least partly determined by distance from forest edges where such species are common. While buried seed is likely to contribute to the early stages of secondary succession, evidence from canopy gaps suggested that the seedling bank (formerly suppressed understorey component) is more important in gap regeneration than the soil seed bank. DCA analysis revealed that seedling bank species composition of canopy gaps and forest sites were quite different from the soil seed banks, indicating that regeneration stemmed from formerly (suppressed) understorey seedlings. Phenology and seed rain study of a mature forest remnant and a regenerating forest community showed that as little as 5% of the seed input to the forest floor enters the soil seed bank and remains viable for more than one year. Evidence is presented to suggest that in a forest community, secondary succession after large-scale or localised disturbance, is achieved more so by suppressed seedlings and recent seed rain than the soil seed bank. The soil seed bank becomes significant in secondary succession when the subsoil is disturbed by the uprooting of trees or the forest floor is exposed by tree-fall (not covered by tree-fall debris).

With an increasing number of large area data sets, many study areas exhibit spatial non-stationarity or spatial variation in mean and variance of observed phenomena. This poses issues for a number of spatial analysis methods which assume data are stationary. The Getis and Ord’s Gi* statistic is a popular measure that, like many others, is impacted by non stationarity. The Gi* is used for locating hot and cold spots in marked data through the detection of spatial autocorrelation in values that are extreme relative to the global mean value, or the mean entire study area. This thesis describes modifications of the Getis and Ord’s Gi* local measure of spatial association, in part to account for regional differences (spatial non-stationarity) in a dataset. Instead of using data from the entire study area to calculate the mean parameter, as is done for the standard Gi*, I capture points for calculation of the mean using a circular distance band centred on the pivot location, which I call the local region (similar to the Ord and Getis Oi statistic). This approach can be applied to a single instance of a local region or to multiple spatial scales of the local region. I explore both in this paper using simulated datasets and a case study on mountain pine beetle infestation data. I find that the local region, when of a similar size to a true region (homogeneous section of the study area where the mean is approximately the same across locations), obtains similar results to the standard Gi* calculated separately on distinct regions (simulated to be distinct), but has the advantage of not needing explicit delineation of regional boundaries or partitioning into separate subareas. The results of a probability score for a multi-scale approach include high and low scores that are more evenly distributed across the study area and that are thus able to pick out more subtle variations within different regions. Through the case study I demonstrate how the multi-scale approach may be applied to a real dataset.

Orientador: Cenira Maria Lupinacci da Cunha / Banca: Rodrigo Braga Moruzzi / Banca: Regina Célia da Oliveira / Resumo: A impermeabilização das áreas urbanas repercute na capacidade de infiltração das águas no solo, favorecendo o escoamento superficial, a concentração de enxurradas e a ocorrência de cheias, interfere no arranjo dos armazenamentos e das trajetórias das águas. Tais alterações, no sistema hidrológico natural, desencadeiam problemas ambientais como: aumento da cota das enchentes e erosões. Os problemas ambientais reforçam as desigualdades sociais, uma vez que, o acesso ao ambiente seguro e saudável é desigual e a população de baixa renda ocupa as áreas de maior fragilidade: encostas íngremes e fundos de vales. O reconhecimento das características hidrogeomorfológicas naturais, mediante a análise geomorfológica, pode fundamentar uma proposta de ocupação que favoreça a manutenção da infiltração e consequente diminuição do escoamento superficial. Dentro da análise geomorfológica destaca-se a vertente, unidade hidrogeomorfológica e elemento dominante do relevo, onde materializam-se as relações das forças produtivas e as transformações que compõem a paisagem. O presente trabalho tem por objetivo estabelecer diretrizes para um planejamento urbano em conformidade com as características naturais de infiltração e escoamento, inter-relacionando planejamento urbano e análise ambiental. Para tanto, toma-se a vertente (latu sensu) como unidade espacial de análise. Considera-se que o Estado, através do planejamento urbano e mediante a análise ambiental, possa regular a organização espacial da sociedade a favor do bem estar e segurança coletivos, contribuindo para que a cidade se desenvolva de maneira sustentável e evitando que as regras de uso do solo urbano sejam condicionadas pela obtenção de lucro / Abstract: The impermeabilization of urban areas prevents the water infiltration, supports the runoff and flood concentration and interferes on its storages and trajectories. Such changes in the hydrological system increase the floods and erosion levels. These urban environmental problems reinforce the social inequalities, since the access to safe and healthy environment is uneven, low-income population occupies the areas of greatest fragility, such as steep slopes and valley bottoms. The recognition of natural hydrogeomorphological features may support an occupation proposal that facilitates the infiltration, decreasing the rainwater volume and time transfer in urban areas. In the geomorphological analysis, the slope, the hydrogeomorphological unit and the prevailing landform element are emphasized. The slope materializes the productive forces relations and transformations that compose the landscape. Therefore, this study aims to establish guidelines for urban planning in accordance with the natural characteristics of infiltration and drainage slope (latu sensu), linking urban planning and environmental analysis. It is considered that the Government should determine the spatial organization for the prosperity of the society and collective security, contributing for the development of the city in a sustainable way, preventing that the urban land rules are determined by profit / Mestre

The Mijikenda sacred natural sites (SNS) contribute towards Kenya’s East African Coastal Forest ecosystem. This ecosystem is highly biodiverse and important to the conservation of many rare and endemic species. The SNS are therefore thought to be very important to biodiversity locally and globally, as well as playing a significant role in the preservation of the local traditional culture. Whilst it is known that the SNS contain coastal forest, there are no accurate estimates on the amount, nor are there assessments of habitat diversity within the sites and no systematic surveys have been done in the past 20 years. In addition, degradation of the sites has been described, but the level of encroachment and amount of forest loss has not been measured. A major driver of the degradation and deforestation of SNS is thought to be cultural change, leading to a decrease in the adherence to traditional practices, and loss of knowledge and respect for local customs. The existing management of the SNS is based on the traditional laws associated with the SNS; enforcement is left to local Kaya Elders, and it follows the assumption that the Mijikenda are a homogenous and culturally static group. As such it is thought that changes in culture and values systems may be undermining the successful conservation of the sites. However, again, whilst changes within the local communities surrounding the SNS have been described, no research has been done on how such changes may have altered the attitudes and values of the local people in this region, or what impact this may have on the preservation of the SNS. The aims of this thesis are to: measure the amount of costal forest within the Mijikenda SNS; to assess if the habitat heterogeneity within the sites; investigate their potential for biodiversity; measure the amount of forest loss within the sites, and the amount of encroachment that they suffer from; understand the current attitudes and values of the local communities towards the SNS, their culture, and conservation; compare current attitudes and values to what would be expected traditionally; investigate the use of resources from the Kayas by the local communities; and, in light of these questions, assess the efficacy of the existing management plan in light of the current landscape in which the SNS are located and any changes in local culture, and associated values. The results show that the Mijikenda SNS contain a substantial proportion (1.4%) of Kenya’s coastal forest. Due to their habitat heterogeneity and habitat features, as well as being some of the only forest habitat within a degraded landscape, they are important to both local and global conservation, including the possibility to maintain viable populations of rare and endemic species. Whilst the rate of forest loss within the SNS was found to be significantly lower than forest loss outside the sites, almost all sites were undergoing encroachment, degradation and forest loss. The local communities were found to be diverse, with different demographics, attitudes, values and behaviours. There has been a significant departure from the traditional culture, including a decrease of participation in traditional practices, a lack of adherence to customary laws, and a loss of traditional knowledge. The SNS were found to be important for resources to the local communities; however, extraction is not being monitored or managed for. In addition, ongoing developments in the region could pose a significant threat to the SNS. This research provides the first set of accurate estimations of coastal forest within the sites, and the range of habitat heterogeneity and potential contribution to biodiversity they make. It also offers the first set of accurate measurements, of the extent of encroachment, and forest loss, that a number of sites on the north coast have undergone. In addition it provides some of the only large-scale social data associated with the Mijikenda SNS. This thesis shows that whilst some of the threats to the sites, and changes in local culture have been observed in the past, none have been accounted for in the current management plans associated with the sites. The management of the SNS needs to be redesigned to account for the changes within the local communities and the surrounding area, as well as addressing the threats that the SNS face. Management should be created on a site-by-site basis, to work with all stakeholders in the area, and must encompass the changes which are happening within the region. In addition, interventions to address conflicts within communities, provide alternative access to resources, and to improve transmission of knowledge, need to be put in place to aid communities in protecting the SNS. Management of the sites must be done jointly by the local people, the government, and NGOs, with the local communities predominantly having autonomy over the protection of the sites and their culture. This research contributes to the understanding of the roles that SNS play in the conservation of biodiversity; and the issues that arise for the conservation of traditionally managed sites of communities undergoing cultural change. It will help to provide information which can be used to address the management of the Mijikenda SNS as well as SNS and community conserved areas around the world.