A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Sciences. Johannesburg, 2013. / Unable to load abstract.

Shell mound or sambaqui, as commonly named in Brazil, are anthropic intentional mound constructions made by complex hunter-gatherer fishing communities. Typically distributed along shorelines and inland regions of Brazil, these sites are arguably one of the earliest evidence of human presence in South America, with dates ranging from 910-660 to 10,179-9,708 cal. yr. B.P. As archaeobotanical investigations reported the presence of various plant resources in these sites, a debate that has received much attention in recent years is regarding the scale of which the shell mound builders managed these resources. The Monte Castelo (9,495-9,137 cal. yr. B.P - state of Rondônia) and the Tucumã shell mound (4,425-4245 cal. yr. B.P. - state of Pará) will be the case studies of this research. The aim of this thesis is to use phytolith data from archaeological contexts in order to evaluate and discern the extent to which these mound builders managed plant resources. The outcome of this study provides novel evidence revealing the management and consumption of wild and domesticated plants through the mid-Holocene. The data calls for an evaluation on the potential scale of horticulture practices by Amazonian shell mound builders as well as the relative contribution of each domesticated resources to the indigenous diet.

Food production, or the cultivation and processing of edible materials, is closely linked to both the physical environment and human social systems. This is especially true on the islands of Remote Oceania, where cultivation of plants introduced with colonization has always been a key component of survival. This project centers on the production systems of an island in the west central Pacific: Pohnpei, Micronesia. It addresses the fundamental question of how food production is related to changes in social and physical environments and also addresses the optimum ways to archaeologically study plant remains in tropical oceanic environments with poor preservation. In order to examine these questions, this project looks at human-environment interrelationships using historical ecology. A multi-pronged approach was used in this research. Archaeological survey was used to identify prehistoric and historic features on the landscape and to map the distribution of food production activities. Excavation of selected archaeological features, including breadfruit fermentation pits, yam enclosures, and cooking features, was conducted to examine formation patterns. Paleoethnobotanical analysis included collection and analysis of flotation samples for carbonized plant macroremain analysis and sediment samples for phytolith analysis. Finally, because a reference collection is key to all paleoethnobotanical research, plant specimens from multiple Pacific locations were collected and processed for phytolith reference. Botanical data show that phytolith analysis is very useful in the Pacific region, as many economically important taxa produce phytoliths. However, because of differential silica uptake, it should be used in conjunction with other methods. Archaeological phytolith analysis of the garden landscape shows disturbance caused by pigs, which were introduced historically, a change from the prehistoric phytolith record, which shows no major shifts. Combined analysis of plant macroremains and phytoliths from secure archaeological contexts shows the use of banana leaves in breadfruit cooking in the historic period, highlighting the importance of multi-method paleoethnobotanical study. These data point towards an anthropogenic environment and stable agricultural system that was present in late prehistoric Pohnpei. Major changes occurred in the historic period, although production of plant foods that were important for centuries continues to flourish today.

タンデトロン加速器質量分析計業績報告 Summaries of Researches Using AMS 2004 (平成16)年度

Phytoliths are mostly formed by groundwater silica carried upwards in a plant's vascular system and consequently accumulated in different parts of the plant. After the plant's death, the phytoliths shaped in specific morphotypes are released into the soil. Phytolith assemblages found in the soil can therefore provide information on the previous vegetation cover. The use of phytoliths as a paleoecological tool is based on their high stability in a broad spectrum of environments, even in arid conditions which are usually not suitable for preservation of pollen grains and plant macro-remains. Analysis of surface phytolith assemblages linked to the parallel study of modern vegetation is offering a good opportunity to refine our knowledge of paleoecosystems of NE Africa by evaluating the interpretation value of the fossil data. Modern phytolith assemblages are usually interpreted by using their phytolith ratio to estimate the density of tree cover, the aridity, and the proportion of C3 and C4 grasses (Barboni et al. 1999). Here we show a comparison of soil phytolith assemblages on a 400 km long climatic gradient reaching from semidesert to short grass savanna. And we also show local variability in phytolith assamblages at one of localities in comparision with grass reference collection. This master...

Embora os indivíduos construtores dos sambaquis constituam o grupo pré-histórico brasileiro melhor estudado, várias questões continuam em aberto. Algumas delas estão ligadas a estratégias de subsistência. Sabe-se que a economia desses indivíduos era baseada na pesca e que a coleta de moluscos teria papel complementar na alimentação. Mas, atualmente, estudos antracológicos e de cálculo dentário vêm demonstrando a grande importância da utilização de plantas pelos sambaquieiros. Entretanto, pouco se conhece sobre as espécies consumidas e o modo de preparo dos alimentos. O sambaqui Jabuticabeira II, localizado na região sul de Santa Catarina, apresenta indícios da utilização de plantas que incluem: artefatos líticos que se acredita que tenham sido usados para raspar, moer e quebrar vegetais; sementes de famílias de plantas que produzem frutos comestíveis; coquinhos; e restos carbonizados de lenho de uma grande diversidade de espécies. Além disso, notou-se grande número e variedade de grãos de amido no cálculo dentário dos indivíduos sepultados nesse sambaqui, sugerindo que o consumo de vegetais ricos em amido teria sido grande. O presente estudo trata, portanto, da análise de 119 microvestígios vegetais de cálculo dentário de 19 adultos de Jabuticabeira II, objetivando avaliar se ocorria, de fato, um consumo de grande variedade de vegetais amiláceos, bem como identificar quais plantas foram consumidas. Para possibilitar tal identificação, foi iniciada a elaboração de uma coleção de referência de grãos de amido de plantas nativas da região. A partir dos resultados obtidos sugere-se que os sambaquieiros de Jabuticabeira II consumiam uma grande variedade de plantas ricas em amido. Embora o número de microrrestos vegetais variasse bastante entre os indivíduos, aparentemente, não ocorria diferença quanto a dieta vegetal de acordo com sexo, classe etária ou lócus de enterramento. A presença de diatomáceas de ambientes de água salobra indicam que os recursos faunísticos consumidos eram obtidos a partir da paleolaguna. Eram consumidos órgãos de reserva subterrâneos de aráceas (inhames), Dioscorea sp. (carás), Calathea SP. (ariá) e Ipomoea batatas (batata-doce) e, possivelmente, frutos das famílias Myrtaceae (incluindo Eugenia uniflora - pitanga) e Arecaceae (palmeiras). Acredita-se que o milho (Zea mays) também fazia parte da dieta, embora não tenha sido possível discernir se era cultivado nesse sitio, ou se foi obtido através de troca com grupos cultivadores de outras regiões. Ainda que fitólitos de gramíneas possam ter sido acidentalmente incorporados ao cálculo dentário dos indivíduos de Jabuticabeira II, sugere-se que algumas gramíneas poderiam ter sido utilizadas, não somente como alimento, mas também com fins medicinais ou de higiene oral. O alimento de origem vegetal parece ter sido processado através de moagem ou maceração, assado em brasas ou cinzas ou, ainda, preparado em fornos escavados. As evidências obtidas neste trabalho não apontam para o cultivo intensivo das plantas que eram utilizadas na dieta desse grupo, mas não corroboram, nem descartam a hipótese de que o manejo ou horticultura de alguns taxa florísticos importantes tenha ocorrido / The sambaqui (shellmound) builders are the best studied ancient human group from Brazil. However, much has still to be discovered about them. It is very well known that their subsistence was based on fishing and that molluscs\' gathering was a complement to their diet. Recently, anthracology and dental calculus studies have shown the importance of plants, but very little is known about the species eaten and the processes that were used for food preparation. The Jabuticabeira II sambaqui, located in southern Santa Catarina, shows evidences of plant use that include: lithic artifacts related to food processing; seeds from plant families that produce edible fruits; palm nuts; and remains from carbonized wood from a variety of species. Besides that, a high number and variety of starch grains were recovered from the dental calculus of some skeletons, suggesting that the consumption of starchy plants was important. For the present study, plant microfossils (n=119) recovered from the dental calculus from 19 adults exhumed from Jabuticabeira II shellmound were analysed, in order to identify the species consumed and to test if, in fact, their diet consisted of a high variety of starchy plants. To allow identification, the construction of a starch reference collection from plants from the studied region was initiated. The results suggest that the individuals buried at Jabuticabeira II indeed ate a high variety of starchy plants. Despite the inter- individual variation in the number of microfossils, there seems to be no difference in the plant intake according to sex, age class and burial site. The diatoms from brackish water that were also found indicate that the faunal resources consumed were obtained from the paleolagoon nearby. Underground storage organs from the Araceae family (arum family), Dioscorea sp. (yams), Calathea sp. (llerén), Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato), and possibly fruits from the Myrtaceae family, including Eugenia uniflora (pitanga), and Arecaceae family (palm trees) were eaten. Although corn starch (Zea mays) grains were also identified, it is not yet clear if it was cultivated in Jabuticabeira II, or if it was obtained through exchange with cultivators from other sites. The grass leaf phytoliths that were also recovered suggest that plants from the Poaceae family could have been used as medicine or for oral hygiene. Plant food seems to have been processed through grinding, toasting in ashes, and maybe in underground ovens. Finally, there is no evidence that suggests that plants were cultivated in Jabuticabeira II, but the management of some botanical taxa cannot be excluded

As part of a multinational project and with the help of other professionals, I gathered and analyzed 110 samples of dental calculus (fossilized plaque) from human remains discovered at Paquimé and the Convento site in the Casas Grandes River valley to identify various microfossils still present in the silica matrix. Once identified, I used the results to reconstruct human/plant relationships present during the Viejo (700-1250 CE) and Medio (1250-1450 CE) periods in and around Paquimé. My data suggest that maize was used throughout both time periods, supplemented by wild plants, and possible marine resources. Further, evidence for cultural food modification methods such as fermentation, roasting, grinding, and nixtamalization (an alkaline treatment of the grain) was present. The data suggest prehistoric plant use went beyond simple subsistence, being modified for use as part of non-subsistence activities.

Contemporary a geographical imbalance of where palaeoclimatological studies have been undertaken exists, where the majority of palaeodata is based on studies from the northernhemisphere. Multiproxy analysis was performed on a peat core from Lydenburg, north-eastern Mpumalanga, covering the last 1.600 years. Proxy focus was put on fossil grassphytoliths. A general drying trend can be noted from AD 400 to 1000, followed by moremesic conditions around AD 1200. The increasingly mesic conditions were interrupted by asignificantly drier period between c. AD 1250 to 1350. This part of the Lydenburg sequenceoccurs in the end of a climate event termed “Medieval warm period” (MWP), suggested tohave been warmer and variable but mostly wetter in southern Africa. The results are in lineregarding the increased temperature and suggested variability. However, in contrast withearlier findings, significantly drier conditions seem to have prevailed at the Lydenburg fenat the end of “MWP” as interpreted by multiple proxies. Following AD 1400 increasinglymesic conditions was recorded as interpreted by several of the analysed proxies. Morepalaeoenvironmental studies needs to be performed in the area in order to elaborate on thedriving factors of palaeoenvironmental change in the region, as well as to establish if thesignals from the Lydenburg fen record local or regional changes. The results support earlierphytolith studies suggesting that small rondels should be excluded from phytolithassemblages in tropical and sub-tropical areas in Africa. / People, Land, and Time in Africa (PLATINA) / Bokoni project. This MA thesis is part of a transdisciplinary project involving scholars from Sweden and South Africa aiming to understand traces of pre-colonial terraces found in north-easter Mpumalanga, South Africa.

Embora os indivíduos construtores dos sambaquis constituam o grupo pré-histórico brasileiro melhor estudado, várias questões continuam em aberto. Algumas delas estão ligadas a estratégias de subsistência. Sabe-se que a economia desses indivíduos era baseada na pesca e que a coleta de moluscos teria papel complementar na alimentação. Mas, atualmente, estudos antracológicos e de cálculo dentário vêm demonstrando a grande importância da utilização de plantas pelos sambaquieiros. Entretanto, pouco se conhece sobre as espécies consumidas e o modo de preparo dos alimentos. O sambaqui Jabuticabeira II, localizado na região sul de Santa Catarina, apresenta indícios da utilização de plantas que incluem: artefatos líticos que se acredita que tenham sido usados para raspar, moer e quebrar vegetais; sementes de famílias de plantas que produzem frutos comestíveis; coquinhos; e restos carbonizados de lenho de uma grande diversidade de espécies. Além disso, notou-se grande número e variedade de grãos de amido no cálculo dentário dos indivíduos sepultados nesse sambaqui, sugerindo que o consumo de vegetais ricos em amido teria sido grande. O presente estudo trata, portanto, da análise de 119 microvestígios vegetais de cálculo dentário de 19 adultos de Jabuticabeira II, objetivando avaliar se ocorria, de fato, um consumo de grande variedade de vegetais amiláceos, bem como identificar quais plantas foram consumidas. Para possibilitar tal identificação, foi iniciada a elaboração de uma coleção de referência de grãos de amido de plantas nativas da região. A partir dos resultados obtidos sugere-se que os sambaquieiros de Jabuticabeira II consumiam uma grande variedade de plantas ricas em amido. Embora o número de microrrestos vegetais variasse bastante entre os indivíduos, aparentemente, não ocorria diferença quanto a dieta vegetal de acordo com sexo, classe etária ou lócus de enterramento. A presença de diatomáceas de ambientes de água salobra indicam que os recursos faunísticos consumidos eram obtidos a partir da paleolaguna. Eram consumidos órgãos de reserva subterrâneos de aráceas (inhames), Dioscorea sp. (carás), Calathea SP. (ariá) e Ipomoea batatas (batata-doce) e, possivelmente, frutos das famílias Myrtaceae (incluindo Eugenia uniflora - pitanga) e Arecaceae (palmeiras). Acredita-se que o milho (Zea mays) também fazia parte da dieta, embora não tenha sido possível discernir se era cultivado nesse sitio, ou se foi obtido através de troca com grupos cultivadores de outras regiões. Ainda que fitólitos de gramíneas possam ter sido acidentalmente incorporados ao cálculo dentário dos indivíduos de Jabuticabeira II, sugere-se que algumas gramíneas poderiam ter sido utilizadas, não somente como alimento, mas também com fins medicinais ou de higiene oral. O alimento de origem vegetal parece ter sido processado através de moagem ou maceração, assado em brasas ou cinzas ou, ainda, preparado em fornos escavados. As evidências obtidas neste trabalho não apontam para o cultivo intensivo das plantas que eram utilizadas na dieta desse grupo, mas não corroboram, nem descartam a hipótese de que o manejo ou horticultura de alguns taxa florísticos importantes tenha ocorrido / The sambaqui (shellmound) builders are the best studied ancient human group from Brazil. However, much has still to be discovered about them. It is very well known that their subsistence was based on fishing and that molluscs\' gathering was a complement to their diet. Recently, anthracology and dental calculus studies have shown the importance of plants, but very little is known about the species eaten and the processes that were used for food preparation. The Jabuticabeira II sambaqui, located in southern Santa Catarina, shows evidences of plant use that include: lithic artifacts related to food processing; seeds from plant families that produce edible fruits; palm nuts; and remains from carbonized wood from a variety of species. Besides that, a high number and variety of starch grains were recovered from the dental calculus of some skeletons, suggesting that the consumption of starchy plants was important. For the present study, plant microfossils (n=119) recovered from the dental calculus from 19 adults exhumed from Jabuticabeira II shellmound were analysed, in order to identify the species consumed and to test if, in fact, their diet consisted of a high variety of starchy plants. To allow identification, the construction of a starch reference collection from plants from the studied region was initiated. The results suggest that the individuals buried at Jabuticabeira II indeed ate a high variety of starchy plants. Despite the inter- individual variation in the number of microfossils, there seems to be no difference in the plant intake according to sex, age class and burial site. The diatoms from brackish water that were also found indicate that the faunal resources consumed were obtained from the paleolagoon nearby. Underground storage organs from the Araceae family (arum family), Dioscorea sp. (yams), Calathea sp. (llerén), Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato), and possibly fruits from the Myrtaceae family, including Eugenia uniflora (pitanga), and Arecaceae family (palm trees) were eaten. Although corn starch (Zea mays) grains were also identified, it is not yet clear if it was cultivated in Jabuticabeira II, or if it was obtained through exchange with cultivators from other sites. The grass leaf phytoliths that were also recovered suggest that plants from the Poaceae family could have been used as medicine or for oral hygiene. Plant food seems to have been processed through grinding, toasting in ashes, and maybe in underground ovens. Finally, there is no evidence that suggests that plants were cultivated in Jabuticabeira II, but the management of some botanical taxa cannot be excluded

付記する学位プログラム名: グローバル生存学大学院連携プログラム / 京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(農学) / 甲第22483号 / 農博第2387号 / 新制||農||1075(附属図書館) / 学位論文||R2||N5263(農学部図書室) / 京都大学大学院農学研究科森林科学専攻 / (主査)教授 北島 薫, 教授 神﨑 護, 教授 北山 兼弘 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Agricultural Science / Kyoto University / DGAM