De acordo com o modelo sequencial de acreção, os planetas gigantes se formam através de um núcleo sólido a partir da captura de planetesimais. Esse núcleo, atingindo uma determinada massa, é capaz de capturar o gás residual do disco protoplanetário que constituirá o seu envelope, formando, então, um planeta gigante (Mizuno, 1980; Pollack et al., 1996). A parte crtica desse cenário está no ajuste dos tempos de formação do núcleo sólido, de captura do gás e dos processos de migração planetária com o tempo de vida do disco (Mordasini et al., 2010). Resultados numéricos mostram que o tempo necessário para a formação de um planeta gigante é muito alto em relação ao tempo de vida do disco, e, que a migração planetária pode ser muito rápida, levando os planetas a carem na estrela antes de sua completa formação. Em geral, os trabalhos sobre formação planetária tratam a migração do planeta utilizando prescrições analíticas (Fortier et al., 2013). No entanto, diversos efeitos associados à termodinâmica do disco de gás fazem com que esses modelos analíticos sejam limitados para lidar com a migração planetária (Paardekooper et al., 2010). De fato, para lidar com a migração planetária de tipo I, esses resultados analíticos se utilizam de discos de gás fisicamente simples e da linearização das equações da hidrodinâmica (Meyer-Vernet e Sicardy, 1987; Tanaka et al., 2002). Para a migração de tipo II, a situação é ainda mais complicada, já que a alta massa do planeta cria um gap em torno da órbita planetária, que impõe uma quebra da linearidade, impossibilitando a obtenção de uma prescrição analtica (Bryden e Lin, 1999). Assim, os resultados numéricos obtidos a partir de simuladores hidrodinâmicos, como o FARGO3D (Masset, 2000; Bentez-Llambay e Masset, 2016), ZEUS (Stone e Norman, 1992), PLUTO (Mignone et al., 2012), entre outros, são essenciais para uma análise mais robusta dos processos de migração planetária dentro de uma gama maior de condições fsicas para o disco de gás. No entanto, os simuladores hidrodinâmicos que tratam da interação do planeta com o disco de gás, em geral, não possuem um modelo para formação planetária. Em alguns deles, modelos para acreção de gás são construdos com base no regime de runaway dessa acreção (Kley, 1999). Todavia, a acreção de sólidos e a acreção de gás para planetas de baixa massa, na maior parte dos casos, não são levadas em consideração. Boa parte disso se deve ao fato de os modelos de formação planetária usarem simulações N-corpos, que, aliados ao código hidrodinâmico, seriam altamente custosos computacionalmente. Assim, torna-se necessário o uso de modelos alternativos para a formação planetária, que sejam capazes de reproduzir os resultados de uma simulação N-corpos de forma confiável. Construir um modelo que considera a acreção de sólidos e gás é uma tarefa árdua e ao mesmo tempo desafiadora. Assim, o presente projeto propõe a implementação de um cenário fisicamente plausível para a formação planetária dentro do código magneto hidrodinâmico FARGO3D. Para modelar a acreção de planetesimais, usamos como base os trabalhos de Guilera et al. (2010) e Fortier et al. (2013), que utilizam um modelo estatstico para determinar a taxa de acreção de planetesimais (Inaba et al., 2001). Esse modelo será implementado pela primeira vez no FARGO3D. Atualmente, sabe-se que a acreção de peebles (material sólido entre cm e mm) tem um impacto importante na formação planetária (Lambrechts e Johansen, 2014; Guilera, 2016; Johansen e Lambrechts, 2017). No entanto, núcleos de poucas massas terrestres possuem um envelope planetário que poderia destruir esses pebbles antes dele alcançar o núcleo (Venturini et al., 2015). Nesta tese, iremos nos preocupar apenas com a acreção de planetesimais, deixando o estudo do pebbles para trabalhos futuros. Para a acreção de gás, iremos modificar o modelo de Kley (1999) incorporado no FARGO antecessor. Essas modificações visam incorporar o raio de Bondi (Bondi, 1952) para determinar a zona de acreção, o efeito da altura do disco e a mudança na taxa de acreção de gás de acordo com a massa do planeta. As modificações implementadas no modelo de acreção de gás foram realizadas com base nos trabalhos de Dürmann e Kley (2015), Russell (2011) e Fortier et al. (2013). A adaptação no código de acreção de gás para levar em conta uma faixa maior de massas planetárias foi realizada utilizando a escala de tempo de Kelvin-Helmoltz. Para isso, seguimos o trabalho de Ikoma et al. (2000) e Idae Lin (2004b). Para testar o modelo de formação planetária no FARGO3D, a simulação padrão para o disco de gás utilizada nesta tese adota um disco bidimensional fino com taxa de acreção constante. A razão de aspecto do disco será de h = 0.05 com um fator de curvatura de = 0.0. Esses valores são consistentes com a teoria de discos finos e são usados nas maioria das simulações que envolvem discos de acreção (Bell et al., 1997; Frank et al., 2002). O disco é assumido localmente isotérmico e a viscosidade do disco é dirigida pela prescrição de Shakura e Sunyaev (1973), com = 0.03. O modelo de disco é simplificado e caractersticas importantes podem influenciar no processo de formação e migração planetária, como as trocas de energia. No entanto, ele é um ótimo modelo inicial para um teste consistente do modelo de formação planetária implementado, já que possui um resultado analtico conhecido. Casos mais complexos serão explorados em trabalhos futuros. Com o modelo de formação planetária implementado, foi possível estudar simultânea- mente a formação e a migração do planeta dentro do simulador hidrodinâmico. Isto é, analisamos a escala de tempo envolvida no processo de migração em conjunto com a escala de tempo da formação planetária para vários parâmetros fsicos envolvidos no modelo. A análise revelou, para nosso modelo de disco, que a escala de crescimento do planeta conseguiu se manter mais baixa que a escala de migração, mesmo quando o planeta atravessou a linha de gelo, local onde há menor quantidade de material disponvel para a acreção de sólidos. Assim, para planetesimais pequenos (raio 0.1 km), foi possvel obter planetas com massas próximas de 5 massas de Júpiter em regiões entre 0.5 e 1 ua, num tempo menor que o tempo de vida do disco. Vale ressaltar que esta tese conta com uma descrição detalhada de como implementar o modelo dentro do FARGO3D, incluindo um apêndice com o programa comentado linha a linha. O intuito é que o leitor possa usar esse modelo de formação e migração planetária para obter novos resultados e vnculos sobre a formação de sistemas exoplanetários ou do nosso Sistema Solar, assim como usar em qualquer outra aplicação que julgar necessária. / According to the sequential model of accretion, the giant planets are formed from a solid nucleus by capturing planetesimals. When this nucleus reaches a certain mass, it captures the residual gas of the protoplanetary disc that will constitute its envelope, forming a giant planet (Mizuno, 1980; Pollack et al., 1996). The critical part of this scenario is to adjust the planet formation and migration timescales with the lifetime of the disk (Mordasini et al., 2010). Numerical results show that the time required for the formation of a giant planet is very long compared to the lifetime of the disc, and that planetary migration can be very rapid, causing the planets to fall into the star before their full formation. In general, works on planetary formation use analytical models to deal with the migration of the planets (Fortier et al., 2013). However, these analytical models are limited given that they do not include several effects associated with the thermodynamics of the gas disc (Paardekooper et al., 2010). Indeed, in order to deal with planetary migration of type I, these analytical models use physically simple gas discs and rely on the linearization of the hydrodynamic equations (Meyer-Vernet e Sicardy, 1987; Tanaka et al., 2002). For the type II migration, the situation is even more complicated. This is due to the fact that the large mass of the planet creates a gap around the orbit of the planet, causing nonlinearities (Bryden e Lin, 1999). Thus, the numerical results obtained using hydrodynamic simulators, such as FARGO3D (Masset, 2000; Bentez-Llambay e Masset, 2016), ZEUS (Stone e Norman, 1992), PLUTO (Mignone et al., 2012), among others, are essential for a more robust analysis of the processes of planetary migration considering a wider range of physical conditions for the gas disc. However, in general, hydrodynamic simulators do not have a model for the planetaryformation. In some of them, models for gas accretion are built based of the runaway regime of accretion (Kley, 1999). Furthermore, the accretion of solids and the accretion of gas for low mass planets are not considered in most of the cases. This is mainly due to the fact that the models of planetary formation use N-body simulations that are computationally very expensive. Thus, it is necessary to use alternative models for the planetary formation, that are capable of reproducing the same results of an N-body simulation. Building a complete model that takes into account all these processes is a hard and challenging task. So, this project aims the implementation of a physically plausible scenario for a planetary formation inside the magneto-hydrodynamic code FARGO3D. For the accretion model we use the works by Guilera et al. (2010) and Fortier et al. (2013), which employ an statistical model to determine the accretion rate of planetesimals (Inaba et al., 2001). This model will be implemented for the first time in the FARGO3D code. It is now known that the accretion of peebles (material with size ranging from mm and cm) has a important impact on the planetary formation (Lambrechts e Johansen, 2014; Guilera, 2016; Johansen e Lambrechts, 2017), although cores with a few masses of the Earth have a planetary envelope that could destroy those pebbles, before they reach the nucleus (Venturini et al., 2015). In this thesis, we will only deal with the accretion of planetesimals, leaving the study of pebbles for future work. For the gas accretion, we use a modified model based on Kley (1999). The modifications aim to incorporate the Bondi radius (Bondi, 1952) to determine the accretion zone, the effect of the height of the disc and the frequency of accretion. The implemented modifications are based on the works by Dürmann e Kley (2015), Russell (2011) and Fortier et al. (2013). The adaptation in the gas accretion code to take into account a wider range of planetary masses was achieved using the Kelvin-Helmoltz timescale, according to the works by Ikoma et al. (2000) and Ida e Lin (2004b). To test the planetary formation model in FARGO3D, the standard simulation for the gas disc uses a bi-dimensional thin disc. The discs aspect ratio is h = 0.05 with a curvature factor of = 0.0. These values are consistent with the theory of thin dics and are used in most of the simulations for accretion discs (Bell et al., 1997; Frank et al., 2002). The disc is assumed to be locally isothermal and the viscosity of the disc is driven by the prescription from Shakura e Sunyaev (1973), with = 0.03. The disc model is simplified and important features, such as energy exchanges, may influence the process of planetary formation andmigration. However, it is a good initial model for a consistent test of the implemented model of planetary formation, which has an known analysical result. More complex cases will be explored in future work. With the newly implemented model for planetary formation, it was possible to simul- taneously study the planet formation and the planet migration using the hydrodynamic simulator. That is, we analyzed both the timescale for planetary formation and the timescale for the migration of the planet, and compared them for the parameters of the model. The analysis revealed that, for our disc model, the timescale of the growth rate of the planet remained lower than the migration timescale, even when the planet crossed the ice line, where there is less material available for solid accretion. Thus, for small planetesimals (1km radius) it was possible to obtain planets with masses of approximately 5 Jupiter masses in regions between 0.5 and 1 au, in nearly the same time as the lifetime of the disc. It is worth noting that this thesis presents a detailed description of how to implement the model for planetary formation in the FARGO3D, including an appendix with the commented code. The goal is to allow the reader to use this planet formation model to obtain new results both about the formation of exoplanetary systems and our Solar System, as well as use it in any relevant application.

This thesis is a computational study of circumstellar gas disks, with a special focus on modeling techniques and on numerical methods not only as scientific tools but also as a target of study. In particular, in-depth discussions are included on the main numerical strategy used, namely the moving-mesh method for astrophysical hydrodynamics. In this work, the moving-mesh approach is used to simulate circumstellar disks for the first time. / Astronomy

What processes are responsible for the dispersal of protoplanetary disks? In this dissertation, beginning with a brief Introduction to planet detection, disk dispersal and high-contrast imaging in Chapter 1, I will describe how ground-based adaptive optics (AO) imaging can help to inform these processes. Chapter 2 presents Polarized Differential Imaging (PDI) of the transitional disk SR21 at H-band taken as part of the Strategic Exploration of Exoplanets and Disks with Subaru (SEEDS). These observations were the first to show that transition disk cavities can appear markedly different at different wavelengths. The observation that the sub-mm cavity is absent in NIR scattered light is consistent with grain filtration at a planet-induced gap edge. Chapter 3 presents SEEDS data of the transition disk Oph IRS 48. This highly asymmetrical disk is also most consistent with a planet-induced clearing mechanism. In particular, the images reveal both the disk cavity and a spiral arm/divot that had not been imaged previously. This study demonstrates the power of multiwavelength PDI imaging to verify disk structure and to probe azimuthal variation in grain properties. Chapter 4 presents Magellan visible light adaptive optics imaging of the silhouette disk Orion 218-354. In addition to its technical merits, these observations reveal the surprising fact that this very young disk is optically thin at H-alpha. The simplest explanation for this observation is that significant grain growth has occurred in this disk, which may be responsible for the pre-transitional nature of its SED. Chapter 5 presents brief descriptions of several other works-in-progress that build on my previous work. These include the MagAO Giant Accreting Protoplanet Survey (GAPlanetS), which will probe the inner regions of transition disks at unprecedented resolution in search of young planets in the process of formation. Chapters 6-8 represent my educational research in quantitative literacy, beginning with an introduction to the literature and study motivation in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 describes the development and validation of the Quantitative Reasoning for College Science (QuaRCS) Assessment instrument. Chapter 8 briefly describes the next steps for Phase II of the QuaRCS study.

I investigate the emission properties of the molecular interstellar medium in protoplanetary disks and galaxy mergers, though focus largely on the latter topic. I utilize both numerical models as well as observations to relate the emission characteristics to physical models for the formation and evolution of gas giant planets and galaxies. The main results of this thesis follow. (1) Gas giant protoplanets may be detectable via self-absorption signatures in molecular emission lines with sufficiently high critical density. Given the spatial resolution of e.g. ALMA, gas giant planets in formation may be directly imageable. (2) Starburst and AGN feedback-driven winds in galaxies can leave imprints on the molecular line emission properties via morphological outflows and high velocity peaks in the emission line spectra. Methods for distinguishing between high velocity peaks driven by dynamics versus those driven by winds are discussed. (3) CO line widths on average trace the virial velocity of z ∼ 6 quasar host halos. Thus, if the earliest quasars formed in ∼1013 M ⊙ halos, they are predicted to have broad molecular line widths. Selection effects may exist which tend quasars selected for optical luminosity toward molecular line widths narrower than the slightline-dependent mean. (4) Using the SMT, I observe a roughly linear relation between infrared luminosity and CO (J=3-2) luminosity in local galaxies confirming the results of recently observed L(IR)-HCN (J=1-0) relations. Subsequent modeling shows that observed SFR-molecular line luminosity relations owe to the average fraction of subthermally excited gas in galaxies, and are simply reflective of the assumed Schmidt law governing the SFR.

The number of extrasolar planet discoveries has increased dramatically over the last 15 years. Nearly 700 exoplanets have currently been observed through a variety of observation techniques. Most of the currently documented exoplanets differ greatly from the planets in our own Solar System, with various combinations of eccentric orbits, short orbital periods, and masses many times that of Jupiter. More recently, planets belonging to a new class of `distant gas giants' have also been discovered with orbits of 30 to 100 times that of Jupiter. The wide variety of different planet formation outcomes stem from a complex interplay between gravitational interactions, hydrodynamic interactions and competitive accretion among the planets that is not yet fully understood. Simulations performed using a series of modifications to an existing, widely used hydrodynamic code (FARGO) are presented. The main goal is to develop a more rigorous and robust gas accretion scheme that is valid and consistent for the ranges of exolanetary gas giant masses, eccentricities and semimajor axes that have been observed to better understand the mechanisms involved in their formation. The resulting scheme is a more robust and accurate prescription for gas accretion onto planetary cores in a manner that is mostly resolution independent and valid over a large range of masses (less than an Earth mass to multiple Jupiter masses). The modified scheme accounts for multiple, competing, dynamic accretion mechanisms (including atmospheric effects) and their associated time scales between an arbitrary number of protoplanets. This updated accretion scheme provides a means for exploring the entire formation process of gas giants out of a variety of initial conditions in a self-consistent manner. The modifications made to the code as well as simulation results will be discussed and explored.

La zone morte, région laminaire confinée au coeur des disques protoplanétaires dont la turbulence de l'écoulement à petite échelle explique l'accrétion de matière sur l'étoile en formation, semble être un lieu propice à la formation planétaire. En effet, au bord interne de la zone morte la différence d'accrétion entraîne le développement d'une sur-densité capable de piéger les grains de poussière qui dérivent vers l'étoile. L'écoulement à cet endroit est de plus potentiellement instable. Le cas échéant, il s'organise en structures tourbillonnaires appelées ''vortex'' qui collectent efficacement la poussière. La position du bord interne est toutefois très incertaine et dépend en particulier de la thermodynamique du modèle de disque considéré. Récemment, le déplacement du bord interne a été envisagé pour expliquer la variabilité de l'accrétion des étoiles jeunes. Cette thèse aborde le problème posé par l'influence de la thermodynamique sur la dynamique du bord interne de la zone morte. Des simulations MHD qui incluent le couplage entre les processus thermodynamiques avec la dynamique de l'écoulement ont tout d'abord permis de confirmer le comportement dynamique du bord interne ainsi que de réaliser la mesure inédite de sa vitesse typique de déplacement. La comparaison de ces résultats avec les prédictions données par un modèle de champ moyen a révélé le rôle du transport d'énergie par des ondes excitées au bord interne de la zone morte. Ces simulations présentent de plus un phénomène nouveau: les vortex formés à l'interface suivent un cycle de formation-migration-destruction. Cette découverte est susceptible de modifier notre vision du scénario de formation planétaire. En résumé, cette thèse met en évidence le fait que les processus thermodynamiques sont au coeur du fonctionnement de la région du bord interne de la zone morte dans les disques protoplanétaires. / The dead zone, a quiescent region enclosed in the turbulent flow of a protoplanetary disk, seems to be a promising site for planet formation. Indeed, the development of a density maximum at the dead zone inner edge, that has the property to trap the infalling dust, is a natural outcome of the accretion mismatch at this interface. Moreover, the flow here may be unstable and organize itself into vortical structures that efficiently collect dust grains. The inner edge location is however loosely constrained. In particular, it depends on the thermodynamical prescriptions of the disk model that is considered. It has been recently proposed that the inner edge is not static and that the variations of young stars accretion luminosity are the signature of this interface displacements. This thesis address the question of the impact of the gas thermodynamics onto its dynamics around the dead zone inner edge. MHD simulations including the complex interplay between thermodynamical processes and the dynamics confirmed the dynamical behaviour of the inner edge. A first measure of the interface velocity has been realised. This result has been compared to the predictions of a mean field model. It revealed the crucial role of the energy transport by density waves excited at the interface. These simulations also exhibit a new intriguing phenomenon: vortices forming at the interface follow a cycle of formation-migration-destruction. This vortex cycle may compromise the formation of planetesimals at the inner edge. This thesis claims that thermodynamical processes are at the heart of how the region around the dead zone inner edge in protoplanetary disks works.

For decades, astronomers have used observations of mature planetary systems to constrain planet formation theories, beginning with our own solar system and now the thousands of known exoplanets. Recent advances in instrumentation have given us a direct view of some steps in the planet formation process, such as large-scale protostar and protoplanetary disk features and evolution. However, understanding the details of how planets accrete and interact with their environment requires direct observations of protoplanets themselves. Transition disks, protoplanetary disks with inner clearings that may be caused by forming planets, are the best targets for these studies. Their large distances, compared to the stars normally targeted for direct imaging of exoplanets, make protoplanet detection difficult and necessitate novel imaging techniques. In this dissertation, I describe the results of using non-redundant masking (NRM) to search for forming planets in transition disk clearings. I first present a data reduction pipeline that I wrote to this end, using example datasets and simulations to demonstrate reduction and imaging optimizations. I discuss two transition disk NRM case studies: T Cha and LkCa 15. In the case of T Cha, while we detect significant asymmetries, the data cannot be explained by orbiting companions. The fluxes and orbital motion of the LkCa 15 companion signals, however, can be naturally explained by protoplanets in the disk clearing. I use these datasets and simulated observations to illustrate the effects of scattered light from transition disk material on NRM protoplanet searches. I then demonstrate the utility of the dual-aperture Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer's NRM mode on the bright B[e] star MWC 349A. I discuss the implications of this work for planet formation studies as well as future prospects for NRM and related techniques on next generation instruments.

abstract: Part I – I analyze a database of Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) simulations of collisions between planetary bodies and use the data to define semi-empirical models that reproduce remant masses. These models may be leveraged when detailed, time-dependent aspects of the collision are not paramount, but analytical intuition or a rapid solution is required, e.g. in ‘N-body simulations’. I find that the stratification of the planet is a non-negligible control on accretion efficiency. I also show that the absolute scale (total mass) of the collision may affect the accretion efficiency, with larger bodies more efficiently disrupting, as a function of gravitational binding energy. This is potentially due to impact velocities above the sound speed. The interplay of these dependencies implies that planet formation, depending on the dynamical environment, may be separated into stages marked by differentiation and the growth of planets more massive than the Moon. Part II – I examine time-resolved neutron data from the Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN) instrument on the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Curiosity rover. I personally and independently developed a data analysis routine (described in the supplementary material in Chapter 2) that utilizes spectra from Monte Carlo N-Particle Transport models of the experiment and the Markov-chain Monte Carlo method to estimate bulk soil/rock properties. The method also identifies cross-correlation and degeneracies. I use data from two measurement campaigns that I targeted during remote operations at ASU. I find that alteration zones of a sandstone unit in Gale crater are markedly elevated in H content from the parent rock, consistent with the presence of amorphous silica. I posit that these deposits were formed by the most recent aqueous alteration events in the crater, since subsequent events would have produced matured forms of silica that were not observed. I also find that active dunes in Gale crater contain minimal water and I developed a Monte Carlo phase analysis routine to understand the amorphous materials in the dunes. / Dissertation/Thesis / Table 1: Giant impact SPH results for Chapter 1 / Table 2: Giant impact SPH results for Chapter 1 / Table 3: Giant impact SPH results for Chapter 1 / Doctoral Dissertation Geological Sciences 2019

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第20182号 / 理博第4267号 / 新制||理||1613(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院理学研究科物理学・宇宙物理学専攻 / (主査)教授 嶺重 慎, 准教授 前田 啓一, 教授 長田 哲也 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

<p dir="ltr">We present a model describing an impact jetting origin for the formation of chondrules, the mm– scale, igneous components of chondritic meteorites which originated during the first few million years of solar system history. The ubiquity of chondrules in both non-carbonaceous and carbonaceous chondrites suggests their formation persisted throughout the protoplanetary disk, but their formation mechanism is debated and largely unexplored in the outer disk.<b> </b>Using the iSALE2D shock physics code, we generate models of the process of impact jetting during mixed material (dunite and water ice) impacts that mimic accretionary impacts that form giant planet cores. We show that the process of impact jetting provides the conditions necessary to satisfy critical first-order constraints on chondrule characteristics (size, shape, thermal history). We then explore the implications of chondrule formation by impact jetting during the formation of giant planet cores by combining the original results with simulations of giant planet core accretion generated using a Lagrangian Integrator for Planetary Accretion and Dynamics (LIPAD) code.</p><p dir="ltr">The second closest Galilean satellite to Jupiter is Europa, an ocean world with an outer ice shell and subsurface water ocean encapsulating its rocky core. The surface of Europa is covered in double ridges. These features are defined by two topographic highs about 100 meters tall, with a central trough between them, which extend for hundreds of kilometers over the surface of the moon. Accurate models for the formation of features as prominent as double ridges will help to further constrain the interior structure and dynamics of the interior of the body. We use analytical and numerical finite element models to show that the incremental growth of an ice wedge within the ice shell can cause deformation matching the observed size and shape of observed double ridges on Europa. These models indicate that the total height and width of the ridges correspond to the depth of the wedge, so that deeper wedges create shorter and broader ridges. We consider different sources for the wedge material and ultimately argue in favor of local sources of liquid water within the ice shell.</p>