Submitted in partial compliance with the requirements of the Master’s Degree in Technology: Homoeopathy, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2016. / There are now several thousand remedies available to a homoeopath and this number is continually increasing with the increase in homoeopathic research and provings. This growing wealth of data does, however, make choosing a homoeopathic remedy difficult and some homoeopaths argue that the essence of homoeopathic remedies are being lost in this excess of data. In an attempt to more accurately see a remedy’s ‘picture’ and gain deeper insight into remedies, Scholten (1993), Sankaran (2005a) and Mangialavori (2010) developed different methods which can now be collectively referred to as “group analysis”. The aim of group analysis is to find symptoms, sensations and pathological tendencies that are common to all remedies within a group. This study involved applying Sankaran’s group analysis approach to the psychoactive plant drug remedies with the rationale of filtering and organizing the mass of data we now have available on this group. This will enable both students and professionals of homoeopathy to develop a deeper understanding, and hence greater utilization, of the psychoactive plant drug remedies. The following five homoeopathic remedies were chosen for this study on the grounds that they have all been extensively proved through both homoeopathic provings and cured clinical cases and there is a vast amount of literature available on these remedies in materia medica and repertories: • Anhalonium lewinii (Cactaceae family) • Cannabis indica (Hamamalidae family) • Coffea cruda (Rubiaceae family) • Nux moschata (Magnolianae family) • Opium (Papaveraceae family) A computer repertory search was conducted using RadarOpus (Archibel, 2014) to extract all rubrics containing the selected remedies. Parameters were set to retain only rubrics that have less than 50 remedies and at least two of the selected psychoactive plant remedies in them. This was to ensure that only well-defined, characteristic remedies were looked at. The rubrics were visually analyzed, compared and contrasted to determine the common sensations within them and mental, general and particular symptoms were analyzed in terms of Sankaran’s model of Vital Sensation (2005a). The vital sensation of the psychoactive plant drug remedies was found to be that of horror, fear or fright. All the remedies belonging to this group experience the sensation of horror either through their perception of pain or through dreams, visions, hallucinations or anxiety. This sensation pervades all these remedies which are constantly trying to escape this sensation by either increasing or decreasing their activity and sensitivity. The active reaction to the sensation of horror is to increase activity. This is expressed through increased sensitivity; mental clarity; sensations of contraction, fullness, heaviness, heat or moisture; delirium, hallucinations and instability. The passive reaction to the sensation of horror is to decrease activity. This is expressed through insensitivity; lack of mental clarity; sensations of expansion, emptiness, lightness, cold or dryness; sleep, stupor and unconsciousness. The compensation, or coping mechanism that psychoactive plant drug remedies develop, is a transcendence of their condition: they transcend, or escape, their condition by no longer feeling or doing anything, by becoming numb and insensitive. The researcher suggests that although the remedies of the psychoactive plant drug group can be classified according to different miasms, the over-riding miasm of this group is the sycotic miasm with its fundamental sense of having a ‘fixed weakness’ within themselves. The researcher also proposes that the psychoactive plant remedies have an affinity for the central nervous system and for ailments caused by strong emotions such as joy, anger, excitement, fear or fright. These remedies tend to produce pathologies of the central nervous system and sleep including increased reflexes, involuntary motions, trembling, jerking; weakness, atrophy, slowness, paralysis; unconsciousness; catalepsy; Autism Spectrum Disorders; hypersensitivity; insensitivity or absence of sensitivity; pain; formication; mental confusion, poor comprehension, nonsensical speech; memory disorders; delirium, hallucinations, schizophrenia; mood disorders; behavioural disorders; anxiety; insomnia, narcolepsy and nightmares. The researcher found group analysis to be a powerful methodology that, if employed correctly, can aid homoeopaths to learn and understand remedies in their ‘totality’. / M

Processing of Chinese medicinal materials (CMMs) is a unique technique for preparing decoction pieces. According to the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) theory, processing can reduce the toxicity, alter the indications and enhance the efficacy of the herbs. Pinelliae Rhizoma (PR), the dried tuber of Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Breit., is a traditional Chinese medicinal herb. Although toxic, it is commonly used for treating cancer, cough and phlegm. TCM doctors usually prescribe raw PR to manage cancer and Pinelliae Rhizoma Praeparatum cum Zingibere et Alumine (PRZA), the product of raw PR processed with ginger juice and alumen, for treating cough and phlegm. To guarantee the quality of a processed herb, standardized processing procedure is critical. However, the current manufacturing protocol of PRZA varies greatly among different places in China. In addition, the mechanisms involved in raw PR's toxicities, the toxicity-reducing effect of processing, and the anticancer effects of raw PR are still not fully understood. In this study, we standardized the manufacturing procedure for PRZA, and explored the mechanisms involved in raw PR-induced cardiotoxicity, the toxicity-reducing effect of processing, and the anti-liver cancer effects of raw PR.;Our results showed that the standardized manufacturing procedure for PRZA is as follows: soak raw PR in water until the center of the cut surface is devoid of a dry core, boil for 6 h after adding 12.5 kg alumen and 25 L freshly squeezed ginger juice for each 100 kg of raw PR, then take out and dry. The toxicity and bioactivity assays demonstrated that PRZA produced using our optimized protocol could reduce the cardiotoxicity, and enhance the antitussive and expectorant efficacies of raw PR, supporting the traditional processing theory; and raw PR exhibited more potent anti-liver cancer efficacy than PRZA, supporting the common clinical practice. Moreover, as expected raw PR and PRZA showed different chemical profiles. These results suggest that our optimized protocol for producing PRZA is appropriate. The optimized protocol, shown to be applicable for PRZA industrial production, will be included in the upcoming "National Standards for Processing CMMs" (全國中藥炮製規範) to update the 1998 edition of this China national standard handbook.;Using a comprehensive metabolomics approach, we explored the underlying mechanisms of raw PR-induced cardiotoxicity and the toxicity-reducing effect of processing. Results showed that inhibition of mTOR signaling and activation of the TGF-b pathway may contribute to raw PR-induced cardiotoxicity, and free radical scavenging may be responsible for the toxicity-reducing effect of processing.;In Summary, in this study we achieved the follows: 1) standardized the manufacturing procedure for PRZA; 2) found that processing with ginger juice and alumen reduced the toxicity of raw PR, and discovered the potential mechanisms for raw PR-induced cardiotoxicity and the toxicity-reducing effect of processing; 3) demonstrated the anti-liver cancer activities and some underlying mechanisms of action of raw PR. Our findings provide a standardized manufacturing procedure for PRZA, help in the understanding of the mechanisms involved in raw PR-caused cardiotoxicity and the toxicity-reducing effect of processing, and provide a pharmacological basis for the clinical application of raw PR in liver cancer treatment. The outcome of this study should guarantee the safety and efficacy of PRZA, and provide scientific justifications for the traditional processing theory of PR.

Thesis (M.Tech.: Biotechnology)-Dept. of Biotechnology, Durban University of Technology, 2007 xv, 136 leaves / The chemical and biological properties of the essential oil from Cymbopogon validus were investigated. Hydro-distillation was used to extract the oil from C. validus, the flower-heads, leaves, culms and rhizomes. The percentage oil yields obtained from the plant organs varied from 0.05 to 1.23%, with the greatest concentration found in the flower-heads and rhizomes, 1.23 and 1.12% respectively. A sensory evaluation of the oil revealed that the essential oil was slightly murky, pale yellow in colour, had a strong turpentine-like smell and remained liquid at room temperature. The oxidative stability of C. validus oil was evaluated by determining its Rancimat induction period (negative), peroxide value (60.56 meq/kg), iodine value (84.55), percentage free fatty acids (0.19%) and percentage cholesterol (3.03%). These results indicated that the oil was highly susceptible to oxidation. Chromatographic profiles of the oils from C. validus, as well as the plant organs were generated using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). Predominant compounds present in the oil included alpha-Cubebene, Camphene, Geraniol, Limonene, Myrcene, Palmitic acid and Sabinene. C. validus essential oil was also investigated for its antimicrobial (disk diffusion), antioxidant (1, 1-Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay), anti-inflammatory (5-lipoxygenase assay), anti-mosquito properties (insecticidal, larvicidal and repellency assays) and toxicity profile (Brine shrimp and Ames assays). The oil showed poor antimicrobial activity and inhibited the growth of only Gram positive bacteria with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.0625 (vol/vol) for Bacillus, Micrococcus and Staphylococcus species. The oil also exhibited excellent antioxidant activity, scavenging more than 80% of DPPH free radicals and possesses anti-inflammatory activity (IC50=190 ppm). C. validus oil showed good adulticidal activity (53.7% mortality) and excellent larvicidal (100% mortality) and repellent activity (100% repellency) against Anopheles arabiensis mosquitoes. At high concentrations, the oil was toxic to brine shrimp larvae. However, when diluted it was safe and the minimum inhibitory concentration was 0.0001(vol/vol). The absence of revertant colonies at all essential oil concentrations in the Ames test suggest that the oil is not mutagenic. These results lead the way for exploiting C. validus oil as a multi-functional agent that has antibacterial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-mosquito properties.

Thesis (M.Tech.: Biotechnology)-Dept. of Biotechnology, Durban University of Technology, 2007 xv, 136 leaves / The chemical and biological properties of the essential oil from Cymbopogon validus were investigated. Hydro-distillation was used to extract the oil from C. validus, the flower-heads, leaves, culms and rhizomes. The percentage oil yields obtained from the plant organs varied from 0.05 to 1.23%, with the greatest concentration found in the flower-heads and rhizomes, 1.23 and 1.12% respectively. A sensory evaluation of the oil revealed that the essential oil was slightly murky, pale yellow in colour, had a strong turpentine-like smell and remained liquid at room temperature. The oxidative stability of C. validus oil was evaluated by determining its Rancimat induction period (negative), peroxide value (60.56 meq/kg), iodine value (84.55), percentage free fatty acids (0.19%) and percentage cholesterol (3.03%). These results indicated that the oil was highly susceptible to oxidation. Chromatographic profiles of the oils from C. validus, as well as the plant organs were generated using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). Predominant compounds present in the oil included alpha-Cubebene, Camphene, Geraniol, Limonene, Myrcene, Palmitic acid and Sabinene. C. validus essential oil was also investigated for its antimicrobial (disk diffusion), antioxidant (1, 1-Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay), anti-inflammatory (5-lipoxygenase assay), anti-mosquito properties (insecticidal, larvicidal and repellency assays) and toxicity profile (Brine shrimp and Ames assays). The oil showed poor antimicrobial activity and inhibited the growth of only Gram positive bacteria with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.0625 (vol/vol) for Bacillus, Micrococcus and Staphylococcus species. The oil also exhibited excellent antioxidant activity, scavenging more than 80% of DPPH free radicals and possesses anti-inflammatory activity (IC50=190 ppm). C. validus oil showed good adulticidal activity (53.7% mortality) and excellent larvicidal (100% mortality) and repellent activity (100% repellency) against Anopheles arabiensis mosquitoes. At high concentrations, the oil was toxic to brine shrimp larvae. However, when diluted it was safe and the minimum inhibitory concentration was 0.0001(vol/vol). The absence of revertant colonies at all essential oil concentrations in the Ames test suggest that the oil is not mutagenic. These results lead the way for exploiting C. validus oil as a multi-functional agent that has antibacterial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-mosquito properties.

Orientadores: Silmara Marques Allegretti, Vera Lúcia Garcia Rehder / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-23T02:12:21Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Oliveira_ClaudineideNascimentoFernandesde_D.pdf: 6645819 bytes, checksum: c09a778f460110b77585bd22b8da5344 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Resumo: A propagação da esquistossomose e a ameaça de tolerância e resistência ao fármaco de escolha, o praziquantel, têm intensificado as pesquisas utilizando plantas medicinais com o intuito de promover o desenvolvimento de novos fármacos esquistossomicidas. A planta Phyllanthus amarus (quebra-pedra) possui atividades antiinflamatória e hepatoprotetora já comprovadas cientificamente, o que fez com que a mesma fosse selecionada para este estudo, uma vez que a principal patologia da esquistossomose é a formação de granulomas (processo inflamatório) no fígado. Esse trabalho teve como objetivo fazer um fracionamento biomonitorado do extrato etanólico de P. amarus por meio de ensaios in vitro e in vivo com o intuito de verificar a ação esquistossomicida dessa planta contra o S. mansoni linhagem BH. Para a realização dos testes in vitro, os vermes adultos coletados foram incubados em placas contendo meio de cultura RPMI 1640, um casal de verme e amostras de extrato etanólico bruto, frações de diferentes polaridades ou lignanas isoladas nas concentrações 200, 100, 50 e 25 ?g/mL. Os vermes foram observados por um período de 72 horas, sendo avaliados a taxa de mortalidade, a oviposição, o acasalamento e as alterações tegumentares. A melhor atividade in vitro foi observada com a fração 2 butanólica, pois foi letal para 100% dos vermes em 48 h de observação, sendo assim selecionada para os testes in vivo. A fração 2 butanólica é composta majoritariamente por lignanas, por isso algumas delas (nirantina, filantina + nirantina e filantina + filtetralina + nirtetralina), mesmo não sendo efetivas nos testes in vitro, foram selecionadas para avaliação in vivo. Nos testes in vivo camundongos Balb/c foram tratados oralmente, 45 ou 60 dias após a infecção. No 45° dia de infecção os animais foram tratados com 100 e 200 mg/kg da fração 2 butanólica, 100 mg/kg das lignanas nirantina, filantina + nirantina e filantina + filtetralina + nirtetralina em dose única e 100 mg/kg da fração 2 butanólica distribuídos em 3 dias consecutivos. Já no 60° dia de infecção o tratamento foi feito em dose única com a fração 2 butanólica, nirantina, filantina + nirantina e filantina + filtetralina + nirtetralina (100mg/kg). A atividade in vivo foi avaliada com base nos seguintes parâmetros: ação sobre os vermes adultos, ovos eliminados nas fezes, oograma, formação das reações granulomatosas, e ação sobre o tegumento (feita por microscopia eletrônica de varredura - MEV). Os tratamentos mais efetivos no 45° dia de infecção foram apresentados pelos grupos tratados com filantina + nirantina e nirantina (100mg/kg). A lignana nirantina apresentou taxa de redução do número de ovos de 90,3% e a associação da filantina + nirantina, 63,8%. Os resultados referentes aos demais parâmetros (redução do total de vermes, de vermes fêmeas e do número de granulomas) foram semelhantes, apresentando taxas de redução em torno de 58%. Além dessas alterações, as imagens obtidas por MEV mostraram extensas lesões no tegumento dos vermes machos. No 60° dia de infecção, a associação de lignanas filantina + nirantina e a fração 2 butanólica (100mg/kg) apresentaram as taxas de redução mais significativas: 50,8% e 46,7% para o número total de vermes, 47,2% e 42,7% para o número de vermes fêmeas, 87,5% e 98,3% para o número de ovos e 44% e 18% para o número de granulomas, respectivamente. Assim sendo, de acordo com os parâmetros biológicos avaliados neste trabalho, a associação das lignanas filantina: nirantina na concentração de 100 mg/kg revelou um efeito esquistossomicida promissor, uma vez que foi efetiva nos dois períodos estudados / Abstract: The dissemination of schistosomiasis and the threat of its causing agents becoming resistant to the drug of choice, i.e., praziquantel, have intensified the research with medicinal plants to promote the development of new schistosomicidal drugs. Phyllanthus amarus (stone-breaker) is a plant whose anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective activities have already been attested, which is the reason why it was chosen for this study, as the main pathology of schistosomiasis is the formation of granulomas (inflammatory process) in the liver. The aim of this work was to carry out a bioguided fractionation of the ethanol extract of P. amarus by means of in vitro and in vivo assays in order to verify the schistosomicidal potential of that plant against S. mansoni, BH strain. To carry out the in vitro assays, the collected adult worms were incubated in plates containing RPMI 1640 medium, a pair of mating worms, and samples of crude ethanol extract, fractions of different polarities or isolated lignans at the concentrations of 200, 100, 50 and 25 ?g/mL. The worms were observed over a period of 72 hours, in which mortality rate, egg laying, mating, and tegumentary changes were evaluated. The best in vitro activity was provided by butanol fraction 2, as it proved lethal for 100% of the worms over 48 hours of observation, and so it was used in the in vivo assays. Butanol fraction 2 is mainly composed of lignans, and some of them (nirantin, filantin: nirantin, and filantin + filtetralin + nirtetralin), albeit not effective in the in vitro assays, were selected for in vivo evaluation. In the in vivo assays, Balb/c mice were treated orally 45 or 60 days following infection. On the 45th day following infection, the animals were treated with 100 and 200 mg/kg of butanol fraction 2, 100 mg/kg of filantina:nirantin and filantin + filtetralin + nirtetralin in a single dose, and 100 mg/kg of butanol fraction 2 distributed over 3 consecutive days. On the 60th day following infection, the treatment was carried out in a single dose with 100 mg/kg of butanol fraction 2, nirantin, filantina:nirantin, and filantin + filtetralin + nirtetralin. The in vivo activity was evaluated based on the following parameters: action on adult worms, eggs eliminated in the stool, egg counting, granulomatous reactions, and action on the tegument of the worms (using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The most effective treatments on the 45th day were those carried out with 100 mg/kg of filantina:nirantin, and nirantin. The association of filantina:nirantin provided a reduction of 63.8% in the number of eggs, whereas nirantin achieved a reduction rate of 90.3%. The results for the other parameters (reduction in the total number of worms, number of females, and number of granulomas) were similar with reduction rates around 58%. In addition to such changes, images obtained by SEM showed extensive lesions on the tegument of male worms. On the 60th day following infection, the filantin + nirantin association and butanol fraction 2 at 100 mg/kg achieved the most significant xxiii reduction rates: 50.8% and 46.7% in the total number of worms, respectively; 47.2% and 42.7% in the number of females, respectively; 87.5% and 98.3% in the number of eggs, respectively; and 44% and 18% in the number of granulomas, respectively. Therefore, according to the biological parameters evaluated in this work, the association of the lignans filantina:nirantin at 100 mg/kg has a promising schistosomicidal activity, as it was effective over two periods of treatment / Doutorado / Parasitologia / Doutora em Parasitologia

Alcohol abuse is a very common practice (just like in many other parts of the world) in Nkonkobe Municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. This is associated with liver disease. An ethnobotanical survey of plants used for the treatment of alcohol-induced liver damage in Nkonkobe Municipality was conducted. During the survey and also from information gathered in the literature, Pelargonium reniforme Curtis, was prominently mentioned, among other plants, as the species used generally for the treatment of alcohol-induced liver damage. This project was designed to evaluate the effects of the plant on alcohol-induced liver damage, including its antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. It also involves safety evaluation studies to determine if the plant is safe for consumption. Studies using rats of the Wistar strain were carried out to determine the protective and curative effects of P. reniforme on alcohol-induced liver damage. Results obtained showed that the plant extract can protect the liver cells as well as enhance recovery from tissue damage. The plant also showed good antimicrobial and antioxidant activity and this further validates its use in the treatment of liver diseases. Safety evaluation studies of the extract were carried out by investigating the effects of the oral administration on some haematological and biochemical parameters in male Wistar rats. The results obtained from the study suggest that the plant extract is not toxic at the doses used and is therefore safe for medicinal uses. The results of the various bioassays carried out in this project have justified the traditional uses of P. reniforme for the treatment of alcohol-induced liver damage.