The National Labeling and Education Act of 1990 (NLEA) mandates that the Food and Drug Administration overhaul existing food labeling regulations and provide the consumer with a standardized, informative food-labeling policy. The intended benefit is the elimination of the confusion currently surrounding food labeling and an improvement in the dietary practices of the American public. The aim of this study was to measure the differences in the food-label reading habits, attitudes, and understanding of low-income women participating in the Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) and of women from the general population. All subjects were the primary household food shoppers. In both groups, 90% "almost always" or "sometimes" read a food label. The food label influenced a purchase decision "a great deal" for 47% of the WIC group and 56% of the control group. Of the two groups, a significant number of WIC participants found the food label significantly easier to understand yet scored significantly lower on the test of nutrition knowledge and label understanding than the control group, particularly on the subject of dietary fat. In addition to calories, the WIC group looked for iron, vitamins, calcium, and protein information, while the control group was more interested in fat, sodium, and cholesterol. Both groups relied upon the media, doctors and food labels for nutrition information. This study suggests that the education component of the NLEA must address the nutrition needs of low-income WIC participants (who are pregnant or have small children). This nutritionally at-risk population would greatly benefit from the education portion of the forthcoming labeling reform. / Master of Science

Wu, Ka Ming. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2000. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 155-163). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Abstract --- p.i-iii / Table of Content --- p.iv-v / Abbreviations --- p.vi / Chapter Chapter One --- Introduction: Women and Poverty in Hong Kong --- p.1 / Poor Women: Where and Who are They? / Research Purpose and Questions / Research Methodology / Some Research Reflections / Chapter Chapter Two --- "Engendering the Question of Poverty: Power in Economy, State and Discourse" --- p.14 / Women and Development under Economic Globalization / Working Daughters Getting Old: The Hong Kong Case / Hong Kong in the International Political Economy / Poor Women: The Opposition of Workers and Citizens / Welfare Perspectives: Three Different Theoretical Streams / The Political Economy of Welfare State / Feminist Critique of Welfare State / Poor Women and Welfare Services in Hong Kong / The Genealogy of Modern Power: Foucault on Power and Discourse / Discourse Analysis / Ideology versus Truth / The Power of Gaze / The Welfare Cut: The Poor as Objects of State Intervention / Power/ Knowledge / Chapter Chapter Three --- poor Women as Product of Economic Development: Changing Role of Hong Kong in the Global Economy --- p.45 / Changing Role of Hong Kong in the Global Economy / Poor Women after Economic Restructuring / Reproductive Work Positions: Sliding Ranks and Salaries / No Jobs for Poor Mothers / Working Poor Mothers: Reconciling Paid Work and Family Responsibility / Familialism and the Incorporation of Women as Labor / Capitalist Production of Familialism / The Matron Workers in the 1970s vs the Disabled Women in the 1990s / Entering the Information Age in the late 1990s: Poor Women and Development / Conclusion / Chapter Chapter Four --- "Women, Poverty and the Welfare System in Hong Kong " --- p.72 / Concern of Hong Kong Social Policy / The Myth of Lassie-faire in Social Welfare / Productivity: Philosophy of Hong Kong Social Welfare / Single Mothers as Study Focus / Who has the Right to Social Welfare? The Breadwinner's Myth / Housing Problem for Single Mothers with Children / Poor Lives of Lone Mother: Child Caring and Work / Women in Our Welfare System without Citizenship / Chapter Chapter Five --- Discourse on the Welfare Cut: The Poor as Object of Intervention --- p.101 / Discursive Analysis / The Arrival of Dependency Culture in Hong Kong / Colonial Fear against the Poor: History of the Politics of Welfare / The Poor as the Object of Intervention / "The Poor against the “Imagined Poor"" " / The Construction of Social Subjectivities of the Lower Class / Conclusion: Difficulty of the Underclass and their Agency / Chapter Chapter Six --- Knowledge Production and Power Relation in Hong Kong --- p.124 / Social Welfare in Hong Kong: To Prevent People from Starving to Death / Make Money and Be Happy: People and Society in Hong Kong / Chou's Discourse on Welfare in Hong Kong / The Hidden Reality in the Affluent 1990s / Rocketing Welfare and Car Crash / The Meaning of Non-Interventionism: Government and Business Interests / Non-Interventionism as Ruling Success or Ruling Inability? / Power/ Knowledge and the Politics of Writing / Conclusion / Chapter Chapter Seven --- Conclusion --- p.148 / Complicity of Economic Development / Complicity of the Government / Power of Discourse / Effects of Discourse / Discourse and Knowledge Production / The Future / Bibliography --- p.155

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study is aimed at exploring mental health services for low-income women in the West Coast I Winelands Region of South Africa. In order to understand the extent to which such services are empowering, the accessibility and theoretical underpinnings of these services are investigated. It was found that although services appear to be available, they are often not very accessible. They also often lack a specific gender focus. In certain instances, services need to increase their accessibility in order to accommodate the restrictive environments of women in this region. As such, it is believed that services require greater integration in their approach to intervention concerning both gender and the origins of mental health problems. Results of this study also highlight areas on which future research could focus. These areas include language of service provision, how organizations understand available theories surrounding service provision, and the service needs of women in this region themselves. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie is gemik op die ondersoek van geestesgesondheidsdienste vir vroue van lae-inkomste groepe in die Weskus I wynverbouingstreek van Suid Afrika. Die toeganklikheid en teoretiese onderstuttngs van hierdie dienste word ondersoek in In poging om die graad waarin delke dienste bemagtigend is, te verstaan. Bevindinge toon dat dienste, albeit beskikbaar voorkom, dikwels nie baie toeganklik is nie. Dienste toon ook meestal 'n gebrekkige fokus ten opsigte van 'n spesifieke geslag. In sekere gevalle behoort die toeganklikheid van dienste verbeter te word in 'n poging om die beperkende omstandighede van vroue in hierdie streek tegemoet te kom. As sulks benodig dienste 'n hoër mate van integrasie in hul benadering tot intervensie, beide wat geslag en die oorsprong van geestesgesondheidsprobleme betref. Bevindinge lig ook areas uit waarop toekomstige navorsing kan fokus. Hierdie areas sluit die volgende in: die taal van diensvoorsiening, hoe organisasies beskikbare teorieë ten opsigte van diensvoorsiening verstaan, en die behoefts van die vroue in hierdie streek self ten opsigte van dienste.

Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The primary goal of this cross-cultural study was to determine how low-income female farm workers in the Western Cape of South Africa, describe their own coping mechanisms. Eight participants were asked to respond to an open-ended question on how they cope with life's difficulties. The current study formed part of a larger project entitled: "Forgotten women on farms". The psychological distress and resilience of female farm workers of colour in the Western Cape: exploring the possibilities for mental health support (Kruger, 1998). The coping interviews were analyzed by means of grounded theory. Analysis revealed that 28 coping mechanisms were identified by the participants themselves. A distinction was made between problem-focused coping mechanisms and emotion-focused coping mechanisms. Out of the 28 identified mechanisms, 8 were categorized as problem-focused coping mechanisms, while 20 were categorized as emotion-focused coping mechanisms, suggesting that the participants predominantly employ emotion-focused coping mechanisms. It was also found that the emotion-focused coping mechanisms employed by the participants often involved an avoidance of emotion. The findings were discussed by: (i) Critically discussing the way in which emotion-focused coping is traditionally defined within the coping literature. (ii) Comparing this to the conceptualization of the role of emotion by authors of trauma literature. Possible reasons for the prevalent use of emotion-focused coping mechanisms in this particular population were provided. The implications of these findings for assessment of coping strategies and for mental health care in this population were discussed. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Ole hoofdoeisteiling van hierdie kruis-kulturele studie was om vas te stel hoe laeinkomste vroueplaaswerkers in die Wes-Kaap van Suid-Afrika hulle eie streshanteringsmeganismes beskryf. Agt deelnemers is gevra om op "n oop vraag oor hoe hulle lewensmoeilikhede hanteer, te reageer. Hierdie studie vorm deel van "n groter projek getiteld "Forgotten women on farms". The psychological distress and resilience of female farm workers of colour in the Western Cape: exploring the possibilities for mental health support (Kruger, 1998). Hierdie onderhoude oor streshantering is ontleed m.b.v. "grounded theory". Analise het getoon dat 28 hanteringsmeganismes deur die deelnemers self ge"ldentifiseer is. Onderskeid is gemaak tussen probleem-gerigte hanteringsmeganismes en emosioneel-gerigte hanteringsmeganismes. Uit die 28 gerdentifiseerde meganismes, is 8 gekategoriseer as probleem-gerigte hanteringsmeganismes, terwyl 20 gekategoriseer is as emosioneel-gerigte hanteringsmeganismes, duidend daarop dat deelnemers grootliks van emosioneel-gerigte hanteringsmeganismes gebruik maak. Daar is ook gevind dat die emosioneel-gerigte hanteringmeganismes dikwels "n vermyding van emosie behels het. Hierdie bevindinge is bespreek deur: (i) Die manier waarop emosioneel-gerigte hanteringsmeganismes tradisioneel in die literatuur gedefinieer word krities te bespreek. (ii) "n Vergelyking te tref met die wyse waarop die rol van emosie deur die outeurs van trauma literatuur gekonseptualiseer word. Moontlike redes vir die groter gebruik van emosioneel-gerigte hanteringsmeganismes in hierdie spesifieke populasie is voorsien. Die implikasies van hierdie bevindinge vir die meting van hanteringsmeganismes en vir geestesgesondheidsdienste binne hierdie populasie is bespreek.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The present research study formed part of a larger longitudinal project concerned with low-income South African women’s subjective experiences of depression (Lourens & Kruger, 2013). The present study specifically focussed on how depressed women experienced their relationships with their children. The study aimed to provide a descriptive overview of how one group of depressed South African mothers experience their relationships with their children, as well as to compare the findings with existing literature. Therefore, the scope of this study does not include in-depth analyses of findings. While numerous researchers have examined and identified the important negative effects of depression in mothers on children during the past decade, a very limited number of studies have been focussed on the opposite direction of the depressed mother-child relationship. Very few studies have explored how relationships with their children may influence the development and subjective experience of depression and emotional distress in mothers, as well as, on the other hand, may protect against depression and emotional distress (Dix & Meunier, 2009; Greig & Howe, 2001; Leung & Slep, 2006; Rishel, 2012; Turney, 2012). The present study attempted to address this gap in the literature. The feminist social constructionist perspective was utilised as theoretical framework (De Vos, Strydom, Fouché, & Delport, 2011). Consistent with social constructionism, the study was conducted within the qualitative research paradigm (De Vos et al., 2011). Convenience sampling was used to recruit participants most suitable for the aims of the study (APA Dictionary of Psychology, 2007). Data were collected by means of in-depth semi-structured interviews. A semistructured interview schedule was utilised as data collection instrument. Each interview was recorded by video camera, as well as by voice recorder, in order to ensure back-up recordings. The interviews were then transcribed. Social constructionist grounded theory was used to analyse the data (Charmaz, 1995). The results indicated that the depressed women and children in this study seem to be different from the stereotype of the depressed mothers and children in the literature. Depressed mothers are typically portrayed in the literature as not able to form a close and secure bond with their children, while the children of depressed mothers are almost always portrayed in the literature as showing behavioural and emotional problems, as well as being “parentified” (Coyne & Thompson, 2011; Dix & Meunier, 2009; Turney, 2012). Although the depressed women in the present study did report child factors which contributed to their depression, they - to the contrary - also emphasised that their children are an important protective factor against their experience of depression. The participants also highlighted that they have the ability to be protective, supportive and caring towards their children, despite their depressive symptoms. The majority of depressed women also described a “very good” mother-child relationship. As such, the participants in the present study showed us a brighter picture of the depressed mother-child relationship. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie navorsingstudie het deel gevorm van ‘n groter longitudinale projek wat op lae-inkomste Suid-Afrikaanse vroue se subjektiewe ervarings van depressie gerig was (Lourens & Kruger, 2013). Die huidige studie was spesifiek gerig op hoe depressiewe vroue hul verhoudings met hul kinders ervaar. Hierdie studie het ten doel gehad om ‘n beskrywende oorsig te voorsien van hoe een groep depressiewe Suid-Afrikaanse vroue hul verhoudings met hul kinders ervaar, asook om die bevindinge te vergelyk met bestaande literatuur. Om hierdie rede sluit die omvang van hierdie studie nie ‘n diepgaande analise van bevindinge in nie. Terwyl talle navorsers die belangrike newe-effekte van moeders se depressie in terme van hul kinders gedurende die laaste dekade ondersoek het, is ‘n baie beperkte aantal studies op die teenoorgestelde rigting van die depressiewe moeder-kind verhouding gerig. Slegs ‘n paar studies het hoe verhoudings met hul kinders die ontwikkeling en subjektiewe ervaring van depressie in moeders kan beïnvloed, ondersoek, of daarteenoor, hoe dit die moeder kan beskerm teen depressie (Dix & Meunier, 2009; Greig & Howe, 2001; Leung & Slep, 2006; Rishel, 2012; Turney, 2012). Die huidige studie het gepoog om hierdie gaping in die literatuur aan te spreek. Die sosiaal konstruksionistiese feministiese perspektief is as teoretiese raamwerk gebruik (De Vos, Strydom, Fouché, & Delport, 2011). In ooreenstemming met sosiale konstruksionisme, is hierdie studie binne die kwalitatiewe navorsingsparadigma uitgevoer (De Vos et al., 2011). Gerieflikheid steekproeftrekking is gebruik om die mees gepaste deelnemers vir die doelstellings van hierdie studie te werf (APA Dictionary of Psychology, 2007). Data is deur middel van in-diepte semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude ingesamel. ‘n Semi-gestruktureerde onderhoudskedule is as data-insamelingsinstrument gebruik. Elke onderhoud is op videokamera, sowel as op band opgeneem, ten einde meer as een opname van elke onderhoud te verseker. Die onderhoude is getranskribeer. Data-analise het plaasgevind deur van sosiale konstruksionistiese gegronde teorie gebruik te maak (Charmaz, 1995). Die resultate het aangedui dat die depressiewe vroue en hul kinders in hierdie studie verskil van die stereotipe van depressiewe moeders en hul kinders in die literatuur. Depressiewe moeders word in die literatuur tipies voorgestel asof hulle nie in staat is om ‘n naby en veilige binding met hul kinders te vorm nie, terwyl die kinders van depressiewe moeders amper altyd in literatuur met gedrags- en emosionele probleme voorgestel word (Coyne & Thompson, 2011; Dix & Meunier, 2009; Turney, 2012). In teendeel – alhoewel die depressiewe vroue in die huidige studie wel gerapporteer het dat hul kinders bydra tot hul depressie – het hulle ook klem geplaas op die feit dat hul kinders ‘n belangrike beskermende faktor is teen hul ervaring van depressie. Die depressiewe vroue het ook beklemtoon dat hulle die vermoë het om beskermend en ondersteunend teenoor hul kinders te wees, ten spyte van hul depressiewe simptome. Die meerderheid deelnemers het ook ‘n “baie goeie” verhouding met hul kinders beskryf. As sodanig, het die depressiewe vroue in die huidige studie vir ons ‘n helderder prentjie van die depressiewe moeder-kind verhouding getoon.

Thesis (M.Admin. (Development)) --University of Limpopo, 2010 / Feminist studies show that gender inequality is an impediment for livelihoods diversification among rural households. Whereas women are understood to be the designers, planners and managers of livelihoods for household survival, their roles in diversification of the means of earning a living are generally undermined through a myriad of social and cultural laws, values, norms and beliefs. Despite the publicity, attempts and efforts in redressing gender inequality in a demographic South Africa, the dissertation argues that gender inequality in rural areas has remained persistent, posing an obstacle to the capacity of households to diversify their livelihoods. The study uses survey results from Sebayeng Village in order to demonstrate that the community’s perceptions of women’s roles perpetuate the status quo wherein women’s capacity to diversify livelihoods are undermined. The survey involved 200 households that were sampled through the simple random design. The respondents consisted of 56.5% females and 43.5% males. The survey results demonstrate that gender inequality remains deep in Sebayeng Village and that such inequality negatively affects the ability of households to diversify their livelihoods. Therefore, this study tends to confirm the general principle that gender inequality renders women as unexplored resources in rural development. To that extent, the study concludes that one of the tests for the success in gender transformation in South Africa is in releasing the energies of women in the sphere of livelihoods diversification.

This study used a multi-method approach to explore factors associated with high and low depression in a sample of rural mothers living in poverty. From a sample of 117 women with very high or very low CES-D depression scores, 40 cases were randomly selected for in-depth qualitative analysis. Qualitative comments about a variety of issues were explored including health, mental health, childcare, transportation, community, social support, and family of origin experiences. Quantitative data were then used in response to themes that emerged from the literature and the qualitative findings. All 117 eligible participants were used for quantitative analysis to increase power. Analysis of the qualitative data revealed several critical differences between the two groups. Low risk participants mentioned fewer health issues and less severe health problems as compared to their high risk counterparts. Mental health issues were reported more in the high risk group, with this group being more likely to have multiple family members experiencing symptoms. All participants reported receiving social support, however, the low risk group reported positive social support experiences, while the high risk group reported ambivalent relationships with the people who provided them with social support. Reported family of origin experiences were quite different between the two groups, with the low risk group reporting more positive past and current relationships. Quantitatively, several interesting results were revealed, many confirming the qualitative findings. Mothers showing higher levels of depression reported significantly more health problems for themselves, their partners, and their children. Additionally, participant's work status, income, perceived adequacy of income, childhood welfare use, and presence of partner were significantly related to depression. Low risk respondents were more likely to be working, perceive their income as adequate, and have a partner. They were also less likely to have received welfare as a child and had higher incomes. The findings offer important implications for future research and policy. Risk for depression seems to be related to a variety of factors, indicating that something should be done to minimize an individual's likelihood toward experiencing depression. This study ultimately provided a clearer picture of the existence of depressive symptoms among women with children living in rural poverty. / Graduation date: 2003

The health of pregnant women is a major concern to health care providers. This grounded theory study of 40 women examined the health of pregnant women and the special threat that poverty and violence posed to their capacity for health. Pregnant women experienced their health as an integrated part of their daily lives; that is, they reported that their health was affected by 'everybody and everything." Women's main concern during pregnancy was to have a healthy newborn and, to this end, they engaged in the process of creating a healthy pregnancy by engaging in health-enhancing behaviours. In this process, the woman focused primarily on ensuring the birth of a healthy baby. Three conditions were essential to a woman's capacity to create a healthy pregnancy: (1) the acceptance of the pregnancy, (2) adequate financial resources, and (3) supportive relationships (especially having a supportive partner). Pregnancies invariably carried with them some uncertainty, and this caused the 40 women in this study to experience a state of vulnerability which, in turn, triggered attempts to create healthy pregnancies. This led to a cycle of improving health: the more energy women had to carry out health-enhancing behaviours the better they felt physically and mentally; the more able they were to conduct their daily activities; and, consequently, the better their health. However, living within a context of poverty and/or violence increased pregnant women's vulnerability and decreased their capacity for creating a healthy pregnancy, leading to extreme stress and the experience of threat. Male violence threatened the women's ability to be connected to those who were important sources of emotional, financial, task-oriented, and knowledge-oriented support, and, thus jeopardized their ability to meet their fundamental needs. Furthermore, the lack of sufficient financial resources limited women's abilities to leave their abusive partners. In order to survive, women in these circumstances sometimes reverted to previous, often harmful, ways of coping in an attempt to reduce their high levels of stress. These coping strategies usually took the form of behaviours that required little energy, such as smoking, not eating properly, and consuming alcohol. Having financial support and a safe place to go were crucial with regard to enabling women to decide to leave abusive partners. Regaining control of their lives in this way allowed women to refocus their energy on health-enhancing behaviours. The women in this study showed incredible strength as they met the challenges imposed by poverty and abuse. They did not remain victims but took hold of their lives with courage and conviction. In order to promote the adoption of health-enhancing behaviours by childbearing women, health care providers must recognize poverty and violence as factors that significantly threaten women's capacity for health. Further to this, special efforts must be made to render culturally sensitive care to First Nations women (i.e., recognizing their cultural identity and heritage, their connection to nature, and the importance of the elders of their community). To this end, we must recognize the connections between racism, colonization, poverty, and violence. For until we have eradicated poverty, and the cycle of violence and degradation that is its legacy, we will not have succeeded in doing all we can to ensure the health and well being of our citizens.

A large and growing body of scholarship has suggested that income poverty has recently decreased in post-apartheid South Africa. Evidence for an overall drop in poverty rates notwithstanding, there has been very little work which has examined the gendered nature of poverty. There have, however, been important changes over the period which might suggest that poverty trends have been gendered. On the one hand, for example, the post-apartheid period has seen the expansion of several grants to support the care-givers of children and the elderly as well as employment growth for women. On the other hand, this same period has been characterised by declining marital rates, rising rates of female unemployment, and women increasingly overrepresented in low-wage work, changes which would be expected to have negative implications for women's economic well-being. This thesis uses nationally representative household survey data from the October Household Surveys (1997 and 1999) and the General Household Surveys (2004 and 2006) to investigate gendered trends in income poverty in several different ways. It examines first, whether females are more likely to live in poor households than males, and whether this has changed over time; and second, how poverty has changed among female- and male-headed households. The thesis also considers why females and female-headed households are more vulnerable to poverty and why the poverty differential between males and females (and female- and male-headed households) may have widened over time. Given the criticism of headship based analyses of income poverty, the thesis also investigates poverty and female headship in greater detail by adopting several alternative definitions of female headship that are commonly used in the literature. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

This study was conducted to examine the food perceptions, purchasing, preparation, and consumption behaviors of female SNAP participants in East Central Indiana. Twenty participants were interviewed, and interviews were transcribed and compiled in order to identify patterns. Participants were primarily white, had at least a high school education, were food-secure, and 85% were either overweight or obese. Results indicated that the participants interviewed in this study had limited opportunities to participate in food and nutrition education courses unless approached by community agencies. Participants indicated they purchased a large variety of healthy and unhealthy food items from a wide array of grocers. A portion of the participants participated in EFNEP courses (n=4), WIC education (n=7), or conducted self-research (n=9). These participants indicated they retained knowledge by participating in these methods of education. Although participants expressed the desire to exhibit healthy eating behaviors, such as examining food labels, they also indicated they did not understand how to utilize the information to make healthy food choices. Results indicated all participants in SNAP would benefit from food and nutrition education courses that focus on SNAP benefit budgeting, meal planning that includes more fruits and vegetables, low-fat food items, and leaner cuts of meat, and physical activity. Practitioners and SNAP officials should be encouraged to coordinate efforts to make participants aware of educational opportunities in order to improve overall health outcomes. / Department of Family and Consumer Sciences