This thesis analyses some ways in which Ludwig Wittgenstein's later philosophy can make a valuable contribution to the current re-evaluation of the concept of method within postmethod pedagogy. First, the emergence and development of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is traced in order to reveal the ways in which theorists’ and practitioners’ understandings of language, the learner, and language learning have influenced practice in three developmental phases of CLT. The analysis then integrates the concepts of Sprachspiel (language-game), Lebensform (forms of life), and Regelfolgen (rule following) from Wittgenstein's Philosophische Untersuchungen into the theoretical assumptions implicit in CLT to produce a model which fosters reflection upon the concepts of language, the learner and language learning in light of the postmethod pedagogic parameters of particularity, practicality, and possibility. This consideration and integration of Wittgensteins's perspective not only promotes a deeper understanding of the theoretical underpinnings of CLT, but also seeks to initiate a re-conceptualization of CLT as a postmethod pedagogy by reflecting upon historical understandings of language, language learners, and language learning and by redefining these core concepts. The analysis culminates in the creation of a table that outlines the concepts of language, language learners, and language learning within a postmethod conceptualization of CLT using combined insights from CLT, postmethod pedagogy, and Wittgenstein’s concepts of Sprachspiel, Lebensform, and Regelfolgen.

This thesis analyses some ways in which Ludwig Wittgenstein's later philosophy can make a valuable contribution to the current re-evaluation of the concept of method within postmethod pedagogy. First, the emergence and development of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is traced in order to reveal the ways in which theorists’ and practitioners’ understandings of language, the learner, and language learning have influenced practice in three developmental phases of CLT. The analysis then integrates the concepts of Sprachspiel (language-game), Lebensform (forms of life), and Regelfolgen (rule following) from Wittgenstein's Philosophische Untersuchungen into the theoretical assumptions implicit in CLT to produce a model which fosters reflection upon the concepts of language, the learner and language learning in light of the postmethod pedagogic parameters of particularity, practicality, and possibility. This consideration and integration of Wittgensteins's perspective not only promotes a deeper understanding of the theoretical underpinnings of CLT, but also seeks to initiate a re-conceptualization of CLT as a postmethod pedagogy by reflecting upon historical understandings of language, language learners, and language learning and by redefining these core concepts. The analysis culminates in the creation of a table that outlines the concepts of language, language learners, and language learning within a postmethod conceptualization of CLT using combined insights from CLT, postmethod pedagogy, and Wittgenstein’s concepts of Sprachspiel, Lebensform, and Regelfolgen.

This research explores postmethod pedagogy (Kumaravadivelu, 2003, p. 165) with two Mozambican secondary school teachers who expressed an interest in carrying out an exploratory research project in their context of practice. The research was undertaken to investigate how teachers, who had attended an International House Language Lab (IHLL) teacher education programme in 2008, were theorizing from their practice with the aim of developing a context-sensitive pedagogy. The research is a qualitative study consisting of two case studies. Each case is based on the practices of a teacher attempting to implement an exploratory research project. The exploratory projects included the following activities: the teacher teaching a lesson with a colleague observing; the teacher and observer meeting both before and after the observed lesson to discuss and analyse the lesson; and finally, the teacher inviting a group of students to discuss their perceptions of selected episodes in the lesson. The teachers used the exploratory research projects to explore their classroom practice in order to learn more about their teaching. Of particular relevance to this study is literature on practitioner research and teachers as reflective practitioners. In analysing the data, I demonstrate that although the exploratory research projects provided a frame of reference and point of departure for postmethod pedagogy, the teachers’ ability to ‘develop a systematic, coherent, and relevant personal theory of practice’ (Kumaravadivelu, 2003, p. 40) was limited by: the context, the surface level application of macrostrategies, and a lack of foregrounding of the critical in the postmethod macrostrategies. The study concludes with a critical reflection on the value of postmethod pedagogy for teacher education programmes offered at IHLL, as well as for the teachers’ contexts of practice. I offer some ‘fuzzy generalizations’ (Bassey, 1999) about the place of postmethod principles in teacher development courses for language teachers from a range of classroom and community contexts.

O objetivo desta tese é investigar de que maneira(s) a didatização de materiais para o ensino do italiano língua estrangeira (LE) pode levar em conta as singularidades dos discentes e, sobretudo, os estilos e as estratégias de aprendizagem deles. Consideramos que a didatização de materiais com base nessas especificidades dos alunos consista em uma proposta de trabalho didático-pedagógico que, por se pautar na pedagogia pós-método, postula a autoria do docente e a coparticipação ativa dos estudantes no processo de seleção e/ou de produção de materiais. No que concerne à fundamentação teórica, baseamo-nos em duas teorias cognitivistas: a Cognição Situada, proposta por John Brown, Allan Collins e Paul Duguid (1989), e a Teoria da Aprendizagem Significativa, elaborada por David Ausubel (1968). Baseamo-nos, também, em postulados de Paulo Freire, que, como se sabe, é o principal representante brasileiro da Teoria Sócio-histórico-cultural. A utilização de duas correntes teóricas diversas na mesma pesquisa, embora possa parecer incoerente à primeira vista, não o é, pois, segundo King e Mackey (2016), no âmbito da didática das línguas, é possível unir teorias distintas para que as pesquisas dessa área possam se beneficiar da análise de múltiplas perspectivas epistemológicas. Outro referencial teórico que embasa esta tese é a pedagogia pós-método, proposta por Kumaravadivelu (2006), a qual ressalta a importância das particularidades de cada contexto de ensino-aprendizagem e destaca a autoria do professor de línguas, que é visto como um profissional capaz de elaborar suas próprias teorias e de praticar o que ele mesmo teoriza. No tocante à fundamentação metodológica, apresentamos um estudo de caso realizado no primeiro semestre de 2015 com uma de nossas turmas: um grupo de dez alunos iniciantes no estudo da língua italiana. Para fazer esse estudo de caso, realizado no Italiano no Campus, curso de extensão universitária da Faculdade de Filosofia, Letras e Ciências Humanas da Universidade de São Paulo, procuramos conhecer as especificidades dos aprendizes e selecionar/elaborar materiais que atendessem, sempre que possível, os interesses e as necessidades deles, bem como os seus estilos e estratégias de aprendizagem. Para tratar dos materiais, relatamos como se deu a didatização desses instrumentos de ensino-aprendizagem da LE, descrevendo o processo de escolha/preparação deles, a sua utilização em sala de aula e a sua avaliação, que foi realizada tanto por nós quanto pelos discentes. A análise dos dados coletados parece indicar que a didatização de materiais para o ensino do italiano LE com base nas singularidades dos alunos permitiu-nos ser autores de nossos próprios materiais e contar com a participação ativa dos aprendizes no processo de seleção/produção desses instrumentos de ensino-aprendizagem da LE. Todavia, a análise também parece indicar que, apesar de termos didatizado materiais com o escopo de atender, em larga medida, as particularidades dos estudantes, não conseguimos atendê-las sempre. / The purpose of this thesis is to investigate in what way(s) the didactization of materials for teaching Italian as a foreign language (FL) can take into account the learners individualities and, most importantly, their learning styles and strategies. We consider that the didactization of materials based on these particularities consists of didactic-pedagogical work grounded on the postmethod pedagogy and it postulates not only the teachers authorship but also the students active co-participation in the process of selection and/or production of materials. Regarding the theoretical approach, we based our investigation on two cognitive theories: Situated Cognition, proposed by John Brown, Allan Collins and Paul Duguid (1989), and Theory of Meaningful Learning, constructed by David Ausubel (1968). In addition, we also focused on Paulo Freires postulates, the main Brazilian exponent of Social-historical-cultural Theory. The use of two distinct theoretical frameworks in the same research, even though it may seem to be inconsistent at first sight, in fact, it is not. According to King and Mackey (2016), within the framework of teaching languages, it is possible to join distinctive theories in order that the studies on this area may benefit from multiple epistemological perspectives. The other theoretical background that supports this thesis is the postmethod pedagogy, proposed by Kumaravadivelu (2006), which emphasizes the importance of the particularities in each teaching and learning context and points out the language teachers authorship, who is seen as a professional able to elaborate his/her own theories and practices what he/she theorizes. With reference to the methodological approach, we carried on a case study that took place during the first semester of 2015 with a group of ten beginners in the study of Italian language at Italian on Campus, a university extension course offered by the Faculty of Philosophy, Languages and Human Sciences of the University of São Paulo. We sought to know learners particularities and to select and elaborate materials to meet, whenever possible, their interests and needs as well as their learning styles and strategies. In order to treat teaching materials, we reported how the didactization of these foreign language teaching and learning tools took place, by describing their selection and production, their use in the classroom and their evaluation, which was performed by both the teacher and the students. The analysis of the data collected indicates that the didactization of materials for teaching Italian as a FL based on learners individualities enabled us to become authors of our own teaching materials and to rely on the learners active participation in the process of selection/production of these FL teaching and learning tools. However, the analysis also suggests that, although we have chosen and prepared teaching materials in order to meet, in a large extent, the students particularities, it was not always possible to meet them.

Esta tese é um estudo de caso sobre as particularidades do processo de formação de uma professora de italiano como língua de herança (LH), durante as fases de planejamento, elaboração de material didático e realização de um curso de italiano na cidade de Pedrinhas Paulista (SP), ex-colônia italiana fundada em 1952. O processo de formação ocorreu durante quinze meses e os instrumentos para a coleta de dados foram gravações em áudio dos encontros, interações por meio do aplicativo WhatsApp, questionários, anotações de campo, reuniões e entrevistas com habitantes e membros gestores da comunidade. No que concerne à fundamentação teórica, baseamo-nos em uma concepção ampla de falantes de LH, que inclui não apenas pessoas com proficiência na língua e com laços de ancestralidade, mas também aquelas que, mesmo sem origem italiana, possuem um sentimento de afiliação em relação à língua e à cultura da comunidade que a usa. A literatura da área evidenciou que as políticas linguísticas em prol das LH são insuficientes para mantê-las presentes no país de acolhimento, e que uma LH não deve ser ensinada como uma língua estrangeira. Os resultados deste trabalho indicam que a formação de professores de italiano LH deve contemplar, de maneira especial, dois temas que geram dificuldades na elaboração do material didático e na prática de sala de aula: (a) a relação entre língua padrão e dialetos e (b) a heterogeneidade de conhecimento linguístico e/ou cultural entre os alunos de LH. Essas questões foram consideradas à luz da pedagogia pós-método, que evidencia a necessidade de olhar para fora da sala de aula, de levar em conta fatores sociais, políticos e históricos ligados à imigração e às políticas linguísticas, familiares e institucionais. Em consonância com o princípio da particularidade, o contexto de formação foi detalhadamente analisado, tendo como guia o arcabouço teórico KARDS, em que conhecimentos pessoais e profissionais da professora, bem como as motivações, as necessidades dos alunos, as ações em sala de aula e auto-observação da professora foram elementos-chave para a compreensão do processo formador. A concretização dos outros dois princípios da teoria pós-método, da praticidade e da possibilidade, revelou a importância (a) da postura do formador para que a professora tenha liberdade para expressar seus dilemas e para agir e inovar e (b) da participação da comunidade no desenvolvimento da autonomia da professora e dos alunos na busca de soluções diante da falta de apoio de instituições e órgãos locais. Se, por um lado, a falta de apoio institucional pode trazer liberdade didática ao professor, por outro, limita o oferecimento de cursos de formação de professores de LH e seu ensino. Os resultados evidenciam, por fim, que a formação de comunidades de prática e de comunidades de investigação é essencial para enfrentar as relações linguísticas de poder, para transformar a realidade local, nos níveis pessoal e social. / This case-study explores the particularities of the educational process of a teacher of Italian as Heritage Language (HL), during the phases of planning, elaboration of teaching materials and realization of a course of Italian HL in Pedrinhas Paulista, (SP), Brazil, an ex-Italian colony founded in 1952. The teacher education process lasted 15 months and the data-collecting instruments were: audio recordings of the meetings with the teacher-student, interactions through the messaging app WhatsApp, questionnaires, field notes, meetings and interviews with inhabitants and city managers. From a theoretical point of view, we adopted a broad definition of HL speakers, which includes not only speakers linguistically proficient and with a family background, but also those with no family background who feels an affiliation to the language and to the culture of the HL speaking community. The studies in that field indicate that the language policies in favor of the HLs are insufficient to maintain them alive, and that a HL should not be taught as a foreign language. The findings of this study suggest that Italian as HL teacher education has to consider, especially, two topics that create difficulties both in preparing the teaching material and in classroom teaching: (a) the relation between standard language and dialects and (b) the heterogeneity of the linguistic and cultural knowledge within the HL learners. These issues have been considered through the incorporation of post-method pedagogy, which makes clear the necessity to look for external factors outside the classroom, and to consider social, political and historical aspects related to immigration and to family and institutional language policies. We analyzed in details the context of teacher education process, in a critical manner consistent with the principle of Particularity, adopting as a guide the modular model KARDS. In that model, the key-elements for the understanding of teacher education process were the teacher professional and personal knowledge, the learners motivations and needs, the teacher self-observation and the teacher classroom work. The realization of the two others principles of post-method theory, practicality and possibility, revealed the importance (a) of a teacher educator stance that gives to the future teacher liberty to express his/her dilemmas and to act and innovate; and (b) of the community participation in the developing of teacher and learners autonomy in the quest for solutions that can face the lack of support by local institutions and entities. Although institutional deficiency spurs the teachers to look for didactic freedom; on the other side it can limit the delivering of teacher education courses in the HL and its teaching. Finally, the findings indicate that the construction of communities of practice and communities of inquiry are essential to face the language power relations, to transform the local reality, on a personal and social level.

O objetivo desta tese é investigar de que maneira(s) a didatização de materiais para o ensino do italiano língua estrangeira (LE) pode levar em conta as singularidades dos discentes e, sobretudo, os estilos e as estratégias de aprendizagem deles. Consideramos que a didatização de materiais com base nessas especificidades dos alunos consista em uma proposta de trabalho didático-pedagógico que, por se pautar na pedagogia pós-método, postula a autoria do docente e a coparticipação ativa dos estudantes no processo de seleção e/ou de produção de materiais. No que concerne à fundamentação teórica, baseamo-nos em duas teorias cognitivistas: a Cognição Situada, proposta por John Brown, Allan Collins e Paul Duguid (1989), e a Teoria da Aprendizagem Significativa, elaborada por David Ausubel (1968). Baseamo-nos, também, em postulados de Paulo Freire, que, como se sabe, é o principal representante brasileiro da Teoria Sócio-histórico-cultural. A utilização de duas correntes teóricas diversas na mesma pesquisa, embora possa parecer incoerente à primeira vista, não o é, pois, segundo King e Mackey (2016), no âmbito da didática das línguas, é possível unir teorias distintas para que as pesquisas dessa área possam se beneficiar da análise de múltiplas perspectivas epistemológicas. Outro referencial teórico que embasa esta tese é a pedagogia pós-método, proposta por Kumaravadivelu (2006), a qual ressalta a importância das particularidades de cada contexto de ensino-aprendizagem e destaca a autoria do professor de línguas, que é visto como um profissional capaz de elaborar suas próprias teorias e de praticar o que ele mesmo teoriza. No tocante à fundamentação metodológica, apresentamos um estudo de caso realizado no primeiro semestre de 2015 com uma de nossas turmas: um grupo de dez alunos iniciantes no estudo da língua italiana. Para fazer esse estudo de caso, realizado no Italiano no Campus, curso de extensão universitária da Faculdade de Filosofia, Letras e Ciências Humanas da Universidade de São Paulo, procuramos conhecer as especificidades dos aprendizes e selecionar/elaborar materiais que atendessem, sempre que possível, os interesses e as necessidades deles, bem como os seus estilos e estratégias de aprendizagem. Para tratar dos materiais, relatamos como se deu a didatização desses instrumentos de ensino-aprendizagem da LE, descrevendo o processo de escolha/preparação deles, a sua utilização em sala de aula e a sua avaliação, que foi realizada tanto por nós quanto pelos discentes. A análise dos dados coletados parece indicar que a didatização de materiais para o ensino do italiano LE com base nas singularidades dos alunos permitiu-nos ser autores de nossos próprios materiais e contar com a participação ativa dos aprendizes no processo de seleção/produção desses instrumentos de ensino-aprendizagem da LE. Todavia, a análise também parece indicar que, apesar de termos didatizado materiais com o escopo de atender, em larga medida, as particularidades dos estudantes, não conseguimos atendê-las sempre. / The purpose of this thesis is to investigate in what way(s) the didactization of materials for teaching Italian as a foreign language (FL) can take into account the learners individualities and, most importantly, their learning styles and strategies. We consider that the didactization of materials based on these particularities consists of didactic-pedagogical work grounded on the postmethod pedagogy and it postulates not only the teachers authorship but also the students active co-participation in the process of selection and/or production of materials. Regarding the theoretical approach, we based our investigation on two cognitive theories: Situated Cognition, proposed by John Brown, Allan Collins and Paul Duguid (1989), and Theory of Meaningful Learning, constructed by David Ausubel (1968). In addition, we also focused on Paulo Freires postulates, the main Brazilian exponent of Social-historical-cultural Theory. The use of two distinct theoretical frameworks in the same research, even though it may seem to be inconsistent at first sight, in fact, it is not. According to King and Mackey (2016), within the framework of teaching languages, it is possible to join distinctive theories in order that the studies on this area may benefit from multiple epistemological perspectives. The other theoretical background that supports this thesis is the postmethod pedagogy, proposed by Kumaravadivelu (2006), which emphasizes the importance of the particularities in each teaching and learning context and points out the language teachers authorship, who is seen as a professional able to elaborate his/her own theories and practices what he/she theorizes. With reference to the methodological approach, we carried on a case study that took place during the first semester of 2015 with a group of ten beginners in the study of Italian language at Italian on Campus, a university extension course offered by the Faculty of Philosophy, Languages and Human Sciences of the University of São Paulo. We sought to know learners particularities and to select and elaborate materials to meet, whenever possible, their interests and needs as well as their learning styles and strategies. In order to treat teaching materials, we reported how the didactization of these foreign language teaching and learning tools took place, by describing their selection and production, their use in the classroom and their evaluation, which was performed by both the teacher and the students. The analysis of the data collected indicates that the didactization of materials for teaching Italian as a FL based on learners individualities enabled us to become authors of our own teaching materials and to rely on the learners active participation in the process of selection/production of these FL teaching and learning tools. However, the analysis also suggests that, although we have chosen and prepared teaching materials in order to meet, in a large extent, the students particularities, it was not always possible to meet them.