Thesis (MScEng)--University of Stellenbosch, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis investigates the credibility of the vanadium redox flow energy storage system, sometimes termed vanadium redox battery (VRB). The focus is on the use of this technology in peak-shaving and load-leveling applications. The initial problem is to find a suitable mathematical model for representing the daily load profile. A sinusoidal function is identified as an elementary approximation of the first order. Due to the periodicity characteristics that are inherent in a daily load profile, the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm is identified as a mathematical model that closely resembles a load profile. The main theme in this thesis is the determination of an optimal solution during the peak-shaving process. In this particular context, the optimal solution refers to the following: With the energy capacity of the VRB and the power rating of the entire system considered as the constraints, the interest is on (i) the constant power that the VRB can deliver in order to bring down the maximum demand quite significantly, (ii) and the time interval in which this constant power is delivered. Therefore, the VRB power delivered during peak-shaving (PVRB) and the corresponding time interval are the main two parameters under consideration in the optimization process. The mathematical algorithm that can be used to determine suitable values for these two parameters is developed. Maple" V 5.1 is used for determining the solution analytically. The obtained results are verified by simulation with Excel". The investigation into the economic benefits that may be derived from the utilization of the vanadium energy storage device is also presented. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis ondersoek die waarde en toepassing van die vadium "redox" vloei energie stoorstelsel (VRB). Die fokus is op die gebruik van hierdie tegnologie om pieklas te verminder en om laste meer egalig te maak. Die aanvanklike probleem is om 'n geskikte wiskundige model vir die daaglikse las-profiel te kry. Deur gebruik te maak van sinus-komponente en die toepassing van die Vinnige Fourier Transform (FFT) is hierdie probleem opgelos. Die hooftema van hierdie werk is om 'n analitiese oplossing te vind vir die optimale toepassing van die konsep vir pieklas vermindering. In hierdie konteks verwys die optimale oplossing na die volgende: Met die gegewe verrnoe van die VRB stelsel en drywingsvermoe van die kragelektronika is die vrae rondom (i) die konstante drywing wat die VRB kan lewer om die maksimum aanvraag van die las beduidend te verminder en (ii) die tydsduur waarin dit plaasvind. Dus is die twee veranderlikes waarvoor oplossings in die optimale proses gesoek word die drywing (PVRS) en die tyd-interval daarvan. Die wiskundige algoritme is met die hulp van Maple® V5.1 ontwikkel. Die resultate is daarna met behulp van simulasies in Excel® getoets. 'n Analise van die moontlike ekonomiese voordele is ook ondersoek.

Orientador: Dionizio Paschoareli Júnior / Banca: Júlio Borges de Souza / Banca: Marcelo Gradella Villalva / Resumo: Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo principal apresentar uma alternativa aos circuitos de iluminação pública convencionais, através de Microssistemas Isolados de Geração e Distribuição de Energia Elétrica (MIGDI), alimentados em corrente contínua, por meio de painéis fotovoltaicos. O circuito proposto é radial e conformado por vinte nós, que compõem um circuito de iluminação de um loteamento urbano composto de 293 nós no total. Para a alocação da geração distribuída (GD), foi solucionado um problema de Programação Quadrático Inteiro Misto (PQIM), através da linguagem de modelagem algébrica AMPL (Modeling Language for Mathematical Programming), utilizando o solver CPLEX, que faz uso do algoritmo de otimização clássica Branch and Bound (B&B). É feita uma análise comparativa considerando aspectos técnicos, construtivos, ambientais e econômicos, considerando o investimento inicial para o circuito proposto para a conexão com lâmpadas de vapor de sódio de alta pressão (VSAP) de 70 W e 220 Vca, normalmente usadas em iluminação pública, e a tecnologia LED (Light - Emitting Diode) de 30 W de alto brilho de 12 e 24 Vcc. É estimado um tempo de retorno (payback) para um horizonte de vinte cinco anos (vida útil dos painéis solares fotovoltaicos), para determinar o ganho e economia obtida com a troca de lâmpada VSAP por LED no circuito proposto / Abstract: This research presents an alternative to conventional street lighting circuits through a Microsystem Isolated Generation and Distribution of Electric Power (MIGDI) fed by direct current through photovoltaic panels. The proposed radial circuit is formed of 20 points of lighting, which comprises a subdivision of an urban lighting circuit composed of 293 nodes in total. For the allocation of distributed generation (DG), a Mixed Integer Quadratic Programming (PQIM) was solved using algebraic modeling language AMPL ( Modeling Language for Mathematical Programming ) in the CPLEX solver, which uses optimization algorithm classical Branch and Bound ( B & B ). A comparative analysis, considering technical, constructive, environmental and economic aspects is made, from an initial investment, comparing vapor lamps high pressure sodium ( HPS ) of 70 W, 220 Vac, normally used in public lighting, and LED ( Light - Emitting Diode) technology 30W high brightness, 12 and 24 Vdc . Time of return ( payback ) for a horizon of twenty five years ( lifetime of photovoltaic solar panels) is estimated to determine the savings from the replacement of HPS lamp by LED technology in the proposed circuit / Mestre

Orientador: Paulo José Amaral Serni / Coorientador: Alceu Ferreira Alves / Coorientador: André Luiz Andreoli / Resumo: Esta dissertação apresenta o desenvolvimento e as simulações computacionais de um inversor fotovoltaico de 2,0 kVA para o controle da potência reativa na rede de distribuição, de modo que haja compensação ativa do fator de potência e aumento da qualidade da energia no local da instalação da planta. Para atingir este objetivo, por meio do ambiente de desenvolvimento do MATLAB/Simulink®, o controle da potência ativa foi realizado pelo ajuste do ângulo entre a tensão da rede e a tensão gerada pelo inversor, por meio do equilíbrio do potencial do barramento CC (proveniente do gerador fotovoltaico). A potência reativa, por sua vez, foi ajustada pela amplitude da tensão do ponto de acoplamento de uma carga local. Além disto, utilizaram-se controladores proporcionais-ressonantes nas malhas de tensão e corrente do conversor trifásico, com finalidade de mitigar as correntes harmônicas de cargas não-lineares que podem depreciar o fator de potência. Foi implementado, também, um conversor CC-CC isolado full-bridge do tipo boost com potência nominal de 1,8 kW, responsável por rastrear o ponto de máxima potência dos módulos fotovoltaicos. Os resultados obtidos permitiram a avaliação do desempenho dos controladores e a observação da conservação, pelo inversor, do fator de potência da rede próximo da unidade para situações com variações acentuadas da carga e da irradiação solar, bem como para os casos com a presença de cargas não-lineares no sistema. Com isso, o perfil de tensão entregue à c... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: This dissertation presents the development and computational simulations of a 2.0 kVA photovoltaic inverter for the control of the reactive power in the distribution network, so that there is active power factor compensation and an increase in the quality of the energy at the installation site plant. In order to reach this objective, the MATLAB/Simulink® development environment was used to control the active power by adjusting the angle between the grid voltage and the voltage generated by the inverter, by means of the potential balance of the DC (from the photovoltaic generator). The reactive power, in turn, was adjusted by the amplitude of the voltage of the coupling point of a local load. In addition, resonant-proportional controllers were used in the voltage and current loops of the three-phase converter, in order to mitigate the harmonic currents of non-linear loads that may depreciate the power factor. A full-bridge, full-bridge boost converter with nominal power of 1.8 kW was also implemented, responsible for tracking the maximum power point of the photovoltaic modules. The results obtained allowed the evaluation of the performance of the controllers and the observation of the conservation by the inverter of the power factor of the network close to the unit for situations with marked variations of the load and the solar irradiation, as well as for the cases with the presence of loads in the system. Thus, the voltage profile delivered to the load is approximately sinuso... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

A key engineering challenge is a transition to cleaner sustainable energy supply that is derived from renewable resources. Furthermore, affordable access to this modern sustainable energy services for communities in particular poor rural and urban communities is crucial. Microbial fuel cell (MFCs) is an emerging renewable alternative technology with potential to be self-sustaining that could alleviate the energy crisis and reduce environmental pollution. The use of the MFC as a dual system for electricity generation and wastewater treatment is been well reported in literature. Manganese dioxide (MnO2) is an effective electro-catalyst that have been used for alkaline fuel cells and battery application. MnO2 have a high conductivity and high structural porosity for ion and gas transport. In addition, MnO2 have a favourable crystal morphology, which makes it particularly useful for improving oxygen reduction reaction in the fuel cell. Graphene (GO) will be loaded on MnO2 surface as an effective support material. GO is a material good for electrical conductivity and their mechanical strength is applicable in electro-catalytic activities and is cost effective. In this work, a constructed dual chamber MFC configuration with graphite rod electrodes, MnO2-GO electrocatalyst and proton exchange membrane (PEM) using municipal sewage wastewater to generate electricity. The MnO2 as an alternative electro catalyst used for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in the MFC while using reduced graphene (rGO) as a support to enhance electrode surface area. Also addressing the effect of graphene material loading on MnOx catalyst for electrochemistry. The characterization of the MnO2-GO electrocatalyst have been analysed using X-Ray diffraction (XRD), Brunau-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) for structural properties. Electrochemical techniques such as cyclic voltammetry (CV) for MnO2-GO electrocatalyst. Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) for the thermal properties, and the morphological properties probed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The dual chamber MFC design functioned successfully and tested for energy generation from municipality sewage wastewater. The maximum voltage of 586 mV reached during MFC operation with various sewage municipal wastewater COD of 100-300mg/L. The maximum power density of 248 mW/m2 with resistance of 16.98 Ω and highest current density of 1.72mA/m2 was observed at the first cycle as compare to other cycle. The lowest value of 0.002159 mA/m2 obtained at the end of 10 days. The content of municipality sewage wastewater is capable of generating electricity. The physico-chemical properties of α-MnO2 exhibits excellent cycling stability on the electrochemical. This excellent cycling stability of α-MnO2 as a super capacitor electrode material. In addition, the graphene material loading on α-MnO2 has improved the electro catalytic activity, which influences the kinetics of the reduction reaction. The α-MnO2 synthesized BET analysis specific surface area of 134.61m2 g-1 reported. MFC technology has the potential to finds its own niche in the energy industry as it is becoming more and more sustainable due to the lower cost of electro catalyst materials. Power densities of 248 mW/m2 using wastewater with COD of 291mg/l were much higher than those previously obtained using low strength wastewater. These results have opened doors for further investigation of improving electro catalysis, utilized high concentration wastewater with high COD and improved MFC design including electrode materials. / Civil and Chemical Engineering / M. Tech. (Chemical Engineering)

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-02T11:16:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2014-04-28Bitstream added on 2014-12-02T11:20:53Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000800459.pdf: 2204878 bytes, checksum: 68624e6c2f51efffb04c8577fc6e38eb (MD5) / Esta dissertação de mestrado discute sobre o investimento em capacidade de transmissão em mercados elétricos competitivos e sua relação com o investimento em capacidade de geração. O principal problema que surge ao descentralizar os investimentos são as externalidades, devido à dependência entre os custos de oportunidade da capacidade transmissão e geração. As externalidades são distorções nomercado que se apresentam quando as decisões de um agente afetam o bem-estar de outro agente, porém não vice-versa. Em presença de externalidades não é válido afirmar que a solução descentralizada seja igual ao resultado centralizado (ótimo de Pareto). Para solucionar este problema deve-se implementar um processo descentralizado através de esquemas regulatórios. Logo, é proposto um modelo binível que procura o ótimo de Pareto e serve como referência para implementação de esquemas regulatórios que permitam avaliar os investimentos em capacidade de transmissão e geração em um mercado competitivo. O modelo binível proposto é transformado em um problema de programação linear inteira mista, usando a teoria de dualidade e técnicas de linearização. O modelo proposto foi implementado em AMPL e solucionado usando o solver comercial CPLEX. Finalmente, são apresentados os resultados obtidos para dois sistemas testes e um sistema real / This dissertation discusses about the investing in transmission capacity in competitive electricity markets and its relation with the investing in generation capacity. Since opportunity costs of transmission and generation capacity are dependent, externalities arise when the investments decisions are decentralized. Externalities are present whenever a decision of a certain agent affects another agent’s welfare but not vice versa. In presence of externalities, the decentralized outcome does not lead to a Pareto optimal solution. In order to overcome this problem, the Pareto optimal solution should be found, and set in the market by means of regulation. Moreover, a bi-level multistage model is proposed, which finds the Pareto optimal solution. This solution can be used as reference for the implementation of regulatory mechanisms that asses the investments in transmission and generation capacity. The proposed bi-level model is transformed into a mixed integer linear problem using duality theory and linearization techniques. Finally, the proposed model is implemented in AMPL and solved using CPLEX; results for several study cases are presented

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-02T11:16:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2014-05-23Bitstream added on 2014-12-02T11:20:52Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000800770.pdf: 1861536 bytes, checksum: 384aecbdfc12b9230b517c602a484511 (MD5) / Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo principal apresentar uma alternativa aos circuitos de iluminação pública convencionais, através de Microssistemas Isolados de Geração e Distribuição de Energia Elétrica (MIGDI), alimentados em corrente contínua, por meio de painéis fotovoltaicos. O circuito proposto é radial e conformado por vinte nós, que compõem um circuito de iluminação de um loteamento urbano composto de 293 nós no total. Para a alocação da geração distribuída (GD), foi solucionado um problema de Programação Quadrático Inteiro Misto (PQIM), através da linguagem de modelagem algébrica AMPL (Modeling Language for Mathematical Programming), utilizando o solver CPLEX, que faz uso do algoritmo de otimização clássica Branch and Bound (B&B). É feita uma análise comparativa considerando aspectos técnicos, construtivos, ambientais e econômicos, considerando o investimento inicial para o circuito proposto para a conexão com lâmpadas de vapor de sódio de alta pressão (VSAP) de 70 W e 220 Vca, normalmente usadas em iluminação pública, e a tecnologia LED (Light – Emitting Diode) de 30 W de alto brilho de 12 e 24 Vcc. É estimado um tempo de retorno (payback) para um horizonte de vinte cinco anos (vida útil dos painéis solares fotovoltaicos), para determinar o ganho e economia obtida com a troca de lâmpada VSAP por LED no circuito proposto / This research presents an alternative to conventional street lighting circuits through a Microsystem Isolated Generation and Distribution of Electric Power (MIGDI) fed by direct current through photovoltaic panels. The proposed radial circuit is formed of 20 points of lighting, which comprises a subdivision of an urban lighting circuit composed of 293 nodes in total. For the allocation of distributed generation (DG), a Mixed Integer Quadratic Programming (PQIM) was solved using algebraic modeling language AMPL ( Modeling Language for Mathematical Programming ) in the CPLEX solver, which uses optimization algorithm classical Branch and Bound ( B & B ). A comparative analysis, considering technical, constructive, environmental and economic aspects is made, from an initial investment, comparing vapor lamps high pressure sodium ( HPS ) of 70 W, 220 Vac, normally used in public lighting, and LED ( Light - Emitting Diode) technology 30W high brightness, 12 and 24 Vdc . Time of return ( payback ) for a horizon of twenty five years ( lifetime of photovoltaic solar panels) is estimated to determine the savings from the replacement of HPS lamp by LED technology in the proposed circuit

A presente dissertação apresenta estudo sobre a geração de energia elétrica de baixa potência utilizando materiais piezelétricos, em particular pastilhas do modelo PZT-4. O sistema adotado é do tipo viga engastada com massa na extremidade livre da viga. Tem pastilhas piezelétricas (PZT) coladas a viga, e é submetido a forças externas harmônicas, em faixas de frequência de excitação na ordem de 0~35 Hz. O gerador de energia utiliza o conceito de energy harvesting, onde se retira do meio externo, energias que seriam perdidas. O objetivo geral é caracterizar o sistema piezelétrico para geração de energia elétrica de baixa potência. Um came-seguidor (shaker) é empregado para gerar o movimento mecânico (força externa). Sobretudo, é realizado um modelamento matemático da pastilha PZT empregando o conceito de Modelo de Circuito Equivalente – ECM (Equivalent Circuit Model). Também são apresentadas algumas topologias de circuitos condicionadores do sinal AC-DC, onde o modelo empregado foi Chaveamento Híbrido Sincronizado de Extração de Energia no Indutor – HSSHI (Hybrid Synchronized Switch Harvesting on Inductor). Duas frequências de excitação foram investigadas 2,5 Hz e 19,5 Hz. Os resultados são apresentados e discutidos por meio de gráficos, tais como: resposta em frequência da aceleração, aceleração do sistema, resposta em frequência da admitância, tensão gerada, corrente elétrica, tempo de carga de capacitores e potência elétrica gerada na saída do circuito. A contribuição deste trabalho foi apresentar a caracterização do comportamento eletromecânico de um sistema piezelétrico para geração de energia elétrica para as duas frequências de excitação estudadas. A pesquisa apresenta a involução das relações entre alguns parâmetros nas duas frequências, como: resposta em frequência de excitação, com relação igual a 87,5 e relação de potência elétrica gerada igual a 1,07. / This dissertation presents a study on low power electricity generation using piezoelectric materials, in particular patches of PZT-4 model. The system adopted is of the type cantilever beam with a mass on the free end of the beam. It has piezoelectric patches glued to the beam and is subjected to external forces harmonics in the excitation frequency bands in the order of 0~35 Hz. The energy generator uses the concept of energy harvesting, which withdraws from the external environment, energy that would otherwise be lost. The overall objective is to characterize the piezoelectric system for generating electricity from low power. A cam follower (shaker) was used to generate mechanical motion (external force). Above, is an accomplished mathematical modeling of the PZT patches employing the concept of Equivalent Circuit Model – ECM. Some topologies conditioners circuits of AC-DC signal are also presented, where the model was employed Hybrid Synchronized Switch Harvesting on Inductor. Two excitation frequencies were investigated 2.5 Hz and 19.5 Hz. The results presented and discussed through graphs: of frequency response of acceleration, acceleration of the system, frequency response of admittance, generated voltage, electric current, charging time of capacitors and electrical power generated in the output of the circuit. The contribution of this research was to present the characterization of the electromechanical behavior of a piezoelectric system to generate electricity for the two studied excitation frequencies. The research presents the involution the relationships of some parameters, such as frequency response of excitement, with ratio equal to 87.5 and electric power generated ratio equal to 1.07.

A presente dissertação apresenta estudo sobre a geração de energia elétrica de baixa potência utilizando materiais piezelétricos, em particular pastilhas do modelo PZT-4. O sistema adotado é do tipo viga engastada com massa na extremidade livre da viga. Tem pastilhas piezelétricas (PZT) coladas a viga, e é submetido a forças externas harmônicas, em faixas de frequência de excitação na ordem de 0~35 Hz. O gerador de energia utiliza o conceito de energy harvesting, onde se retira do meio externo, energias que seriam perdidas. O objetivo geral é caracterizar o sistema piezelétrico para geração de energia elétrica de baixa potência. Um came-seguidor (shaker) é empregado para gerar o movimento mecânico (força externa). Sobretudo, é realizado um modelamento matemático da pastilha PZT empregando o conceito de Modelo de Circuito Equivalente – ECM (Equivalent Circuit Model). Também são apresentadas algumas topologias de circuitos condicionadores do sinal AC-DC, onde o modelo empregado foi Chaveamento Híbrido Sincronizado de Extração de Energia no Indutor – HSSHI (Hybrid Synchronized Switch Harvesting on Inductor). Duas frequências de excitação foram investigadas 2,5 Hz e 19,5 Hz. Os resultados são apresentados e discutidos por meio de gráficos, tais como: resposta em frequência da aceleração, aceleração do sistema, resposta em frequência da admitância, tensão gerada, corrente elétrica, tempo de carga de capacitores e potência elétrica gerada na saída do circuito. A contribuição deste trabalho foi apresentar a caracterização do comportamento eletromecânico de um sistema piezelétrico para geração de energia elétrica para as duas frequências de excitação estudadas. A pesquisa apresenta a involução das relações entre alguns parâmetros nas duas frequências, como: resposta em frequência de excitação, com relação igual a 87,5 e relação de potência elétrica gerada igual a 1,07. / This dissertation presents a study on low power electricity generation using piezoelectric materials, in particular patches of PZT-4 model. The system adopted is of the type cantilever beam with a mass on the free end of the beam. It has piezoelectric patches glued to the beam and is subjected to external forces harmonics in the excitation frequency bands in the order of 0~35 Hz. The energy generator uses the concept of energy harvesting, which withdraws from the external environment, energy that would otherwise be lost. The overall objective is to characterize the piezoelectric system for generating electricity from low power. A cam follower (shaker) was used to generate mechanical motion (external force). Above, is an accomplished mathematical modeling of the PZT patches employing the concept of Equivalent Circuit Model – ECM. Some topologies conditioners circuits of AC-DC signal are also presented, where the model was employed Hybrid Synchronized Switch Harvesting on Inductor. Two excitation frequencies were investigated 2.5 Hz and 19.5 Hz. The results presented and discussed through graphs: of frequency response of acceleration, acceleration of the system, frequency response of admittance, generated voltage, electric current, charging time of capacitors and electrical power generated in the output of the circuit. The contribution of this research was to present the characterization of the electromechanical behavior of a piezoelectric system to generate electricity for the two studied excitation frequencies. The research presents the involution the relationships of some parameters, such as frequency response of excitement, with ratio equal to 87.5 and electric power generated ratio equal to 1.07.

Miniaturisation has been the holy grail of mobile technology. The ability to move around with our gadgets, especially the ones for communication and entertainment, has been what semiconductor scientists have battled over the past decades. Miniaturisation brings about reduced consumption in power and ease of mobility. However, the main impediment to untethered mobility of our gadgets has been the lack of unlimited power supply. The battery had filled this gap for some time, but due to the increased functionalities of these mobile gadgets, increasing the battery capacity would increase the weight of the device considerably that it would eventually become too heavy to carry around. Moreover, the fact that these batteries need to be recharged means we are still not completely free of power cords. The advent of low powered micro-controllers and sensors has created a huge industry for more powerful devices that consume a lot less power. These devices have encouraged hardware designers to reduce the power consumption of the gadgets. This has encouraged the idea of wireless power transmission on another level. With lots of radio frequency energy all around us, from our cordless phones to the numerous mobile cell sites there has not been a better time to delve more into research on WPT. This study looks at the feasibilities of WPT in small device applications where very low power is consumed to carry out some important functionality. The work done here compared two rectifying circuits’ efficiencies and ways to improve on the overall efficiencies. The results obtained show that the full wave rectifier would be the better option when designing a WPT system as more power can be drawn from the rectenna. The load also had a great role as this determined the amount of power drawn from the circuitry.

The performance of photovoltaic (PV) modules in terms of their ability to convert incident photon to electrical energy (efficiency) depends mostly on the spectral distribution of incident radiation from the sun. The incident spectrum finally perceived by the module depends strongly on the composition of the medium in which it has traveled. The composition of the earth’s atmosphere, which includes, amongst others, water vapour, gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, absorbs or scatters some of the sunlight. The incident solar spectrum is also modified by the diffuse aspect of radiation from the sky which strongly depends on aerosol concentration, cloudiness and local reflection of the earth’s surface. Although it is well known that the changes in outdoor spectrum affect device performance, little work has been conducted to support this theory. This is probably due to lack of spectral data or in certain instances where data is available, little knowledge of interpreting that data. The outdoor spectral data that one obtains in the field does not come clearly for just simple interpretation. Different analytical interpretation procedures have been proposed, all trying to explain and quantify the spectral influence on PV devices. In this study an assessment methodology for evaluating the effects of outdoor spectra on device performance parameters during the course of the day, seasons and or cloudy cover has been developed. The methodology consists of developing a device dependant concept, Weighted Useful Fraction (WUF) using the outdoor measured spectral data. For measuring PV module’s performance parameters, a current-voltage (I-V) tester was developed in order to monitor the performance of six different module technologies. The Gaussian distribution was used to interpret the data. For hot-spot analysis, different techniques were used, which include Infrared thermographic technique for identifying the hot-spots in the solar cells, SEM and EDX techniques. The AES technique was also used in order to identify other elements at hot-spots sites that could not be detected by the EDX technique. iii Results obtained indicate that multicrystalline modules performance is affected by the changes in the outdoor spectrum during summer or winter seasons. The modules prefer a spectrum characterized by WUF = 0.809 during summer season. This spectrum corresponds to AM 2.19 which is different from AM 1.5 used for device ratings. In winter, the mc-Si module’s WUF (0.7125) peaks at 13h00 at a value corresponding to AM 1.83. Although these devices have a wider wavelength range, they respond differently in real outdoor environment. Results for mono – Si module showed that the device performs best at WUF = 0.6457 which corresponds to AM 1.83 during summer season, while it operates optimally under a winter spectrum indicated by WUF of 0.5691 (AM2.58). The seasonal changes resulted in the shift in WUF during day time corresponding to the “preferred” spectrum. This shift indicates that these devices should be rated using AM values that correspond to the WUF values under which the device operates optimally. For poly-Si, it was also observed the WUF values are lower than the other two crystalline-Si counterparts. The pc-Si was observed to prefer a lower AM value indicated by WUF = 0.5813 during winter season while for summer it prefers a spectrum characterized by WUF = 0.5541 at AM 3.36. The performance of the single junction a-Si module degraded by 67 percent after an initial outdoor exposure of 16 kWh/m² while the HIT module did not exhibit the initial degradation regardless of their similarities in material composition. It was established that the WUF before degradation peaks at 15h00 at a value of 0.7130 corresponding to AM 4.50 while the WUF after degradation “prefers” the spectrum (WUF = 0.6578) experienced at 15h30 corresponding to AM value of 5.57. Comparing the before and after degradation scenarios of a-Si:H, it was observed that the device spends less time under the red spectrum which implies that the device “prefers” a full spectrum to operate optimally. The degradation of a-Si:H device revealed that the device spectral response was also shifted by a 7.7 percent after degradation. A higher percentage difference (61.8 percent) for spectral range for the HIT module is observed, but with no effects on device parameters. Seasonal changes (summer/winter) resulted in the outdoor spectrum of CuInSe2 to vary by WUF = 1.5 percent, which resulted in the decrease in Isc. This was ascertained by iv analyzing the percentage change in WUF and evaluating the corresponding change in Isc. The analysis showed that there was a large percentage difference of the module’s Isc as the outdoor spectrum changed during the course of the day. This confirmed that the 17 percent decrease in Isc was due to a WUF of 1.5 percent. In mc-Si solar cells used in this study, it was found that elemental composition across the entire solar cell was not homogenously distributed resulting in high concentration of transition metals which were detected at hot spot areas. The presence of transition metals causes hot-spot formation in crystalline solar cells. Although several transition elements exist at hot-spot regions, the presence of oxygen, carbon, iron and platinum was detected in high concentrations. From this study, it is highly recommended that transition elements and oxygen must be minimized so as to increase the life expectancy of these devices and improve overall systems reliability