Research indicates a relationship between prenatal maternal stress (PNMS) and attention levels in children. Studies with non-human primates suggest that both exposure to PNMS and the timing of a stressor during pregnancy are associated with greater attention problems in offspring; however, this has not been sufficiently tested in humans because of methodological constraints. We explored the relationship between objective and subjective measures of PNMS for 85 women who were pregnant during the 1998 Quebec Ice Storm and attention levels in their 5.5 year-old children, while controlling for socioeconomic status, child's sex, and maternal state anxiety. As a group, children in the study displayed significantly less attentive behaviour compared to a standardized norm. Boys in this group were significantly less attentive than girls. Objective PNMS exposure during 1st trimester correlated positively with attention problems in the children, accounting for 15.2% of the variance in attention levels as rated by Kindergarten teachers. In a behavioural task to detect sustained attention difficulties and Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms, children exposed during the 3rd trimester obtained significantly worse scores compared to children exposed in other trimesters. However, in this case, objective and subjective PNMS appeared to act as protective factors, raising the possibility of the presence of another unknown mechanism that negatively affected the attention variables.

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This study explores the experience of a select group of women pregnant for the first time after age 35. A grounded theory approach was used to collect, code, compare, and contrast data arising from a series of indepth interviews. The resultant theoretical construct showed that these women conceived of pregnancy as a four phase project. Each phase revolved around a major concept and had a related goal. The women moved from the early planning and controlling phases through transition to a phase of uncertainty about how they would incorporate motherhood into their lives. Implications for nursing relate to the women's sophisticated learning needs, their ability to plan and control their experiences, their lack of synchronization with societal norms, their self confidence, and their continuing careers. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Nursing, School of / Graduate

Bibliography: leaves 406-467. / This explorative study, partially based on the psychological and developmental perspectives, evaluated female sexuality and body image during pregnancy and the postnatal period. A cross-sectional and longitudinal research design was used. Several female (n = 208) and male ( n = 84) subsamples were evaluated. Assessment included a Biographical Questionnaire, Female and Male Sexuality Scales rated on 3- and 5- point scales, and the Rorschach Inkblot Test, scored for Barrier and Penetration responses. Parametric and non-parametric statistical techniques were employed in the cross-sectional data analysis. The biographical background of the subjects was homogeneous. Predominantly all of the women were educated, had planned their pregnancies, attended prenatal classes and were informed about the process of pregnancy. Chi-square tests on the single items measuring female sexuality, from prior to conception to during pregnancy, and after childbirth, showed a significant decline in females' sexual satisfaction and in the intensity with which they experienced orgasms. Excluding the retrospective data, a significant decline was found on female sexual desire and enjoyment during pregnancy and during the postnatal period. Physiologically related reasons were commonly associated with declined sexual desire. Few pregnant or postnatal women abstained from sexual intercourse or introduced coital methods and positions unfamiliar to them. A factor analysis of the single sexuality variables revealed four factors, Sexual Responsivity, Sexual Orgasmic Ability, Multiple Orgasmic Ability and Sexual Motivation. The data subjected to a multivariate analysis of variance yielded a significant linear downward trend of Female Sexual Responsivity over the gestation period and after childbirth. The conclusion is drawn that female sexuality I specifically referring to the psychological dimension (Factor 1) was not related to a specific trimester (or stage). No significant differences were evident on the physiological dimension of female sexuality referring to Orgasmic Ability or Sexual Motivation. Female body image was assessed both qualitatively and quantitatively. The descriptive analysis showed that pregnant women felt overweight, and unacceptable by social standards, yet they viewed these bodily states as temporary. The projective account of body image yielded no significant differences. The conclusion was drawn that women consciously rejected their pregnant body image, but subconsciously it formed part of their identity. Expectant fathers only experienced a significant decline in sexual satisfaction and initiated less sexual activity during their wives' pregnancy. It was concluded that male sexuality was minimally affected by their partner's pregnancy. Finally, pregnancy was found to be a natural and positive event.

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Digitized using a Konica Minolta 211 PCL Scanner. 300dpi (OCR). / Thesis (MA (Psychology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Most portrayals in the media, research and clinical literature of teenage pregnancy and motherhood concentrate on the negative consequences for the teenager, the baby and society. Although these portrayals do capture the experience of some of the cases, they fail to grasp the complexity of these teenagers' life choices and the alternative positive impact teenage pregnancy and motherhood may have on their lives. This qualitative study focuses on the autobiographical narrative of the teenager as she experiences pregnancy and becomes a mother. The sample consists of eight participants from a rural community outside Stellenbosch, South Africa. One pre-birth interview as well as three interviews after the birth of the baby were audio taped and transcribed. Responses showed significant data with regards to the impact of the emotional experience of teenage pregnancy and motherhood on the teenager, as well as her experience of herself, changes in her life as well as the nature of the pregnancy and motherhood experience. To date, the literature does not account for the unique and individual nature of how teenage pregnancy and motherhood impacts the individual. In contrast, this research illustrates the changes in the thoughts, emotions and behaviours of teenagers when they become mothers. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die meeste uitbeeldings in die media, navorsing en kliniese literatuur met betrekking tot tiener swangerskap en moederskap fokus op die negatiewe gevolge vir die tiener, die baba en die samelewing. Alhoewel hierdie uitbeeldings tog die ervaringe van sekere van die gevalle verteenwoordig, misluk dit om die kompleksiteit van die tieners se lewenskeuses vas te vang, asook die alternatiewe positiewe impak wat tiener swangerskap en moederskap op hulle lewens kan hê. Hierdie kwalitatiewe studie fokus op die outobiografiese naratiewe van die tieners soos hulle swangerskap en moederskap ervaar. Die deelnemers bestaan uit agt tieners vanuit 'n plaasgemeenskap buite Stellenbosch, Suid-Afrika. Een onderhoud tydens die tiener se swangerskap sowel as drie onderhoude na die geboorte van die baba is opgeneem en getranskribeer. Betekenisvolle data ten opsigte van die impak van die emosionele ervaring van tiener swangerskap en moederskap, asook die tiener se ervaring van haarself, veranderinge in haar lewensstyl en die aard van die swangerskap en moederskap ervaring het duidelik na vore gekom in die onderhoude. Tot op hede neem die literatuur nie die unieke en individuele aard van hoe tiener swangerskap en moederskap die individu beinvloed, in ag nie. In teenstelling illustreer hierdie navorsing die veranderinge in die denke, emosies en optrede van die tieners soos hulle moeders word.

The purpose of the research was to develop and test a scale to index the concerns of first-time expectant parents. The two-phase research design included (1) an inductive concept generation phase, consistent with the status of knowledge in the field, and (2) a quantitative deductive instrument test of the concepts from phase 1. In the inductive phase, grounded theory analysis using interviews from a theoretical sample of ten expectant parents, provided data to generate a conceptual model. The three induced constructs were Support Cycling, Transition to First-Time Parenthood and Success at Parenting. In the quantitative deductive phase, 45 female and 36 male first-time expectant parents, volunteered from childbirth classes to test the Imle Transition to Parenthood Concerns (ITPC) scale, which indexed the second of the three major constructs generated in the inductive phase. Preliminary internal consistency and content validity assessments of the scale yielded an 87 item paper and pencil scale that would measure intensity of concern about each item. Separate testing for male and female subjects was supported by Hotelling's T² in MANOVA tests of the effects of sex and measured but uncontrolled testing situation variables. Reliability estimates of the ITPC scale, with seven subscales, indicated acceptable coefficient alphas for females and males of .95 and .93, respectively. The seven subscale coefficient alphas ranged from .79 to .92 for females and from .84 to .91 for males. Concurrent criterion-related validity estimates, using one criterion item per subscale, exceeded the criterion of at least .55, ranging from .58 to .83 for females and from .59 to .86 for males. The ITPC scale met preliminary tests of reliability and concurrent criterion-related validity. Since the subject test sample was representative of the middle class, educated type of person, who usually attends childbirth education classes, scale testing results cannot be generalized to other types of samples without testing. Psychometric testing indicated clinicians can use small sub-sets of items to index expectant parent concerns in a quick, easy-to-score, valid and reliable manner. Results could offer sound information to facilitate patient counseling.

This research project looks at the experiences of a group of pregnant teenagers in a low socio-economic area. Teenage sexuality and pregnancy has been the subject of substantial research in South Africa and the rest of the world as it is a global issue. The challenge that pregnant teenagers face are to manage schooling, pregnancy and mothering rather than dropping out of school. This study was conducted using a qualitative research method through semi-structured interviews. The participants consisted of fourteen teenagers ranging from fifteen to eighteen years of age. The teenagers were either pregnant or had delivered their babies. They attended the local high school with the exception of one participant who had dropped out of school. I interviewed one Life Orientation educator from the local high school and one ante natal nursing sister from the local municipal clinic. Teenage pregnancy produced gender inequalities as the female adolescent is unable to attend school whilst recuperating from the birth of the child; the male continues attending school regardless of fathering the child. Culturally it was inappropriate to receive sex education at home so information was gained within the formal setting of Life Orientation classes, peers or social media. Due to varying degrees of familial support, the teenagers were able to return to school after the birth of their babies. The level of family support ranged from taking over full responsibility of the child so the adolescent continued with her former life to the teenager having to care for the child when returning from school and only being able to complete homework tasks once the baby was asleep. Agency was most apparent in the decision of abortion. The teenagers would not be forced into the procedure if it was not the option of their choice despite pressure from boyfriends and family. Teenagers also showed agency in ending relationships with their partners if the partner was dating other girls concurrently. However, they did not use agency in the negotiation of condom use despite stating that they were in equal relationships with their boyfriends. This indicates how structures may constrain agency, specifically structures that are located in gendered inequalities. The teenagers were knowledgeable about the facts of condom use as protection against pregnancy and disease but these facts were not put into practice. Discourses suggest female teenagers’ fear of being rejected by their partner through the insistence of condom use and male domination over the female.

The purpose of this thesis was to determine whether couples gained any knowledge as a result of attending expectant parent classes.A pre-class and post-class questionnaire was utilized to evaluate the learning. Areas covered were pre-labor symptoms, labor and delivery, activities post partum period, the newborn, family relationships, family planning, and relaxation and breathing patterns. Some couples were observed during labor and delivery to evaluate the use of the relaxation and breathing patterns and the husband's participation.This study indicated that husbands and wives did learn as a result of attending the expectant parent classes. It also indicated that the husbands actively participated in the labor and delivery phases and that the relaxation and breathing patterns were utilized to various degrees during labor and delivery.Ball State UniversityMuncie, IN 47306

This thesis examines childbearing and first birth in Scotland. A description of empirical patterns and trends in childbearing and first birth in Scotland is given. Unique and appropriate analyses of data sources are presented. This includes analysis of the Scottish Longitudinal Study (SLS) and Scottish Social Attitudes Survey: Fertility Module (SSAS). The thesis clearly demonstrates the relationship between social stratification and childbearing within Scotland. This is apparent longitudinally, examining timings of first birth using the SLS, and in cross-sectional data using the SSAS, and comparing childbearing ideals and intentions with achieved numbers of children. The evidence suggests inequalities at play on parenthood. Those relatively less advantaged on measures of social stratification, for instance using data on occupations or educational attainment can be observed as starting families earlier than those more educationally or occupationally advantaged. Whether, and how, standard measures of geography relate to fertility outcomes is examined across several chapters and findings suggest that they offer some explanation relating to individual processes of first birth. A latent class approach is outlined which shows that economic theories of fertility can be reconciled with attitudinal indicators of opportunity cost and financial constraint. A distinctive theoretical position is also taken which culminates in the exposition of the position that childbearing can be usefully conceptualised in terms of a threshold effect.