Across the central and eastern United States, upland oaks are experiencing regeneration complications. This thesis comprises two studies evaluating challenges in regenerating upland oaks. One study evaluates upland Quercus spp., Carya spp., and Acer rubrum L. response to prescribed fire and impacts on seedling growth and mortality. This study found prescribed fire promoted oak growth when canopy cover was < 77%. Oaks displayed lower percent mortality and higher resprout capacity after fire compared to red maple. The second study investigates impacts of Microstegium vimineum presence on Quercus alba L., Liriodendron tulipifera L., and Acer rubrum L. seedlings under different light and moisture environments. Microstegium vimineum presence decreased growth of both sweetgum and red maple; white oak was less impacted, likely because of its conservative growth strategy and high-water use efficiency. Oaks’ conservative growth strategy may offer more resiliency compared to its competitors in response to prescribed fire and Microstegium vimineum.

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Rosebay rhododendron (Rhododendron maximum L.) is an ericaceous shrub commonly found in riparian areas of the Appalachian Mountains. After more than a century of fire exclusion in the U.S., the distribution of R. maximum and its dominance of forest understories have increased. Rhododendron expansion has caused a decline in overstory regeneration and the potential for dangerous fuel conditions around suburban structures near the wildland-urban interface. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of seven silvicultural treatments on both the fuel loading within an R. maximum thicket and the control of R. maximum as a forest weed. The final objective of the project was to determine the cost effectiveness of each implemented treatment. Due primarily to moisture conditions, a single prescribed burn was relatively ineffective in reducing fuel loading and causing R. maximum mortality. Mechanical cutting caused a drastic shift in the size-class distribution of R. maximum but resulted in heavy sprouting and increased fuel loading. Herbicide application did not reduce or increase fuel loading and was important in R. maximum control only when combined with other treatments. The prescribed burning treatment was the least expensive individual treatment while mechanical cutting was the most expensive. Combination treatments showed increased effectiveness in controlling R. maximum but were more expensive than the individual treatments. The results of the treatments from this study will be used over the long term to demonstrate to land managers the effects of vegetation control on rhododendron. / Master of Science

Fire occurrence was widespread in the central Appalachians pre-European settlement due to Native American ignition and occasional lightning strikes, and continued through European settlement. During this time, low to mixed severity burns supported a suite of ecological communities that were fire adapted. In the mid-20th century, the frequency and intensity of fire decreased regionally, resulting in profound forest composition shifts. Land managers now are prioritizing prescribed fire as a restoration tool in current and transitioning fire dependent communities. However, it is unclear how the re-introduction of fire will affect bat community assemblages, particularly after the severe White-nose Syndrome related population declines of many cave-hibernating bat species. To address this concern we used acoustic detectors to sample bat activity levels in burned and unburned environments to examine habitat and temporal effects of fire on bat species in a repeatedly burned landscape. We found evidence for weak positive fire effects on the northern long-eared bat, Indiana bat, little brown bat, big brown bat/silver-haired bat group, high frequency phonic group, and total bat activity. Temporal effects of fire were only apparent for the big brown bat, where we observed a negative relationship between activity and time since fire. Additionally, historic wildfires may offer a suitable surrogate to assess long-term burn impacts on bats, which in turn can be used to better inform bat and prescribed fire relationships. To examine effects of historic fire on bats, we assessed bat presence using acoustic detections at 16 paired burned and unburned forest stands in Shenandoah National Park. Overall, we found few or mostly equivocal relationships of bat occupancy across species relative to burn condition or time since fire at SNP, indicating there is little evidence to support the concept that fire has a significant ecological effect on bats in this portion of the central Appalachians. Riparian areas are particularly important for bats, and serve as foraging and drinking areas, roost sites, and travel corridors. Because fire impacts dry upland and mesic riparian areas differently, is possible that fire will impact bats differently in burned and riparian habitats. To examine fire effects on bats in riparian and upland habitats, we used paired sampling to monitor bat activity in burned, unburned, riparian, and non-riparian areas. Burn and riparian variables had empirical support to explain activity of all bat species. However, coefficients for these species were small and confidence intervals overlapped zero indicating that differences between habitat configurations were marginal. Our results suggest bats have somewhat species-specific responses to fire that differ between upland and riparian habitats, but that large landscape level prescribed fire has a slightly positive to neutral impact on all bats species identified in at our study site post-fire suppression. / Master of Science / Fire occurrence was widespread in the central Appalachians pre-European settlement from to Native American ignition and occasional lightning strikes, and anthropogenic burning continued through European settlement. During this time, burns supported many ecological communities that were fire adapted, i.e., oak (Quercus spp) and pine (Pinus spp)-dominated types. In the mid-20th century, fire decreased regionally, resulting in changes to forest composition. Land managers now are prioritizing prescribed fire as a tool to restore or re-establish fire dependent communities. However, it is unclear how the re-introduction of fire will affect bats, particularly after the severe White-nose Syndrome related population declines of many bat species. To address this concern, I used acoustic detectors to measure bat activity levels in burned and unburned landscapes to examine habitat and temporal effects of fire on bat species in a repeatedly burned landscape on the northwestern portion of the George Washington National Forest. I found evidence for weak positive fire effects on the northern long-eared bat, Indiana bat, little brown bat, big brown bat/silver-haired bat group, high frequency phonic group, and total bat activity. Temporal effects of fire were only apparent for the big brown bat, where we observed decreasing activity as time since fire increased. Because riparian areas are particularly important for bats in the region as foraging and drinking areas, roost sites, and travel corridors, I also focally compared burned and unburned riparian areas. Burn and riparian variables had support to explain activity of all bat species, however differences between habitat types were marginal. My results suggest bats have somewhat species-specific responses to fire that differ between upland and riparian habitats, but that large landscape level prescribed fire has a slightly positive to neutral impact on all bats species identified at our study site post-fire suppression. Lastly, examining effects of historic wildfires may allow managers to infer long-term burn impacts not yet observable with current prescribed burning. To examine effects of historic fire on bats, I assessed bat presence using acoustic detections at paired burned and unburned forest stands in Shenandoah National Park. Overall, I found few relationships of bat occupancy across species relative to burn condition or time since fire, indicating that fire likely does not have a significant ecological effect on bats in this portion of the central Appalachians.

Fire is a cultural phenomenon. It is among man's oldest tools, the first product of the natural world he learned to domesticate. Since the 1970's, fire has been utilized extensively in forest management practices. This study was designed to compare prescribed burning in the fall or the spring with hand cutting to reduce the overall height of vegetation. Ten scenic overlooks on the Blue Ridge Parkway were selected for treatment. The experiment is a randomized incomplete block design. Four permanent transects were delineated in each unit for vegetation sampling. Four one-by-five meter plots were sampled on each transect for the species and number of root crowns in three height classes: less than one meter, one to three meters and greater than three meters. Vegetation sampling was completed before and after treatment. Rate of spread was determined by non-directional grid sampling. Flame length was measured at five points within the sampling grid and fire intensity was calculated. Prescribed burning and hand cutting stimulate sprouting of existing vegetation. Repetitive burning is necessary to effectively control hardwood sprouting on the Parkway. Fire stimulated the herbaceous community and resulted in a significant increase in the species richness. Changes in soil characteristics were slight and did not degrade the site. Personnel costs were similar but burning required fewer hours of work. Decreases in the number of personal accidents and an expected decrease in the number of personnel required to successfully complete the burns favor the use of fire to control vegetation for forest vista management. / Master of Science