O objetivo principal desta tese de doutorado foi a valorização da casca da amêndoa de cacau através do estudo da viabilidade técnica do emprego de tecnologias de extração a pressão atmosférica (ATME) e com líquido pressurizado (PLE) para extração da gordura e biocompostos deste material, utilizando etanol e isopropanol como solventes, os quais são solventes GRAS com aplicação potencial como substitutos do hexano na extração de lipídeos. Para que a sua viabilidade na aplicação de processos de extração fosse atestada, inicialmente, a casca da amêndoa de cacau seca (CS) foi caracterizada. A CS mostrou ser um material nutricionalmente interessante, com teor intermediário de lipídeos (entre 18 a 22% b.s.), elevado teor de fibras, flavanóis e alcaloides e alta solubilidade proteica (47 - 54%), além de não apresentar contaminação por micotoxinas e cádmio. Sua gordura se destacou por ter perfil lipídico semelhante ao da manteiga de cacau com teor superior de ácido linoleico e teores de tocoferóis totais bastante elevados os quais variaram entre 1016 a 1273 mg/kg de gordura, sendo os isômeros majoritários o (γ+β) tocoferois. Assim, a cinética de extração por PLE de lipídios e flavanóis totais (FLA) para sistemas contendo CS e etanol em grau absoluto (Et0) foi estudada nas temperaturas de 60, 75 e 90 °C em tempos estáticos variando de 3 a 50 minutos e razão mássica sólido:solvente de 1:3. A partir destes experimentos determinou-se 30 minutos como o tempo adequado para que a condição de equilíbrio fosse alcançada para as três temperaturas avaliadas; à partir deste intervalo de tempo a extração de lipídeos está estabilizada e o rendimento de extração de FLA é máximo. Os extratos, as gorduras e os sólidos desengordurados oriundos da PLE foram avaliados levando a concluir que esta técnica foi extremamente viável para extração de lipídeos, flavanóis, alcaloides e tocoferóis da CS, fornecendo rendimentos de extração bastante elevados, em curto período de tempo, em um único estágio de contato. Os dados experimentais da cinética por PLE foram modelados e os coeficientes de difusão para a gordura foram estimados. Além disso, pode-se verificar que a PLE não afetou a solubilidade das proteínas presentes no material das extrações conduzidas a 60 e 75 °C, o que permite a obtenção de um sólido desengordurado com elevado valor. A investigação do processo de extração por ATME iniciou-se com sistemas contendo CS e solventes etanol e isopropanol, em grau absoluto e azeotrópico, nas temperaturas de 60, 75 e 90 °C com razão mássica sólido:solvente de 1:3 e tempo de extração de 1 hora. Pode-se observar que, nessas condições, os experimentos de extração forneceram resultados de rendimento de extração de gordura aquém do esperado. Apesar disso, foi possível avaliar o efeito dos parâmetros de processo, temperatura e tipo de solvente, sobre o processo de extração; pode-se concluir que temperaturas mais elevadas levam a maiores rendimentos de extração de todas as classes de compostos avaliadas, para os lipídeos, em geral, o solvente isopropanol em grau absoluto foi o mais eficiente, entretanto, na extração de compostos fenólicos, FLA e tocoferóis o solvente etanol em grau azeotrópico apresentou melhor desempenho. Para uma investigação mais aprofundada, realizou-se o estudo da cinética de extração de lipídeos por ATME com os solventes etanol em grau absoluto e azeotrópico nas temperaturas de 75 e 90 °C. Com estes experimentos pode-se observar que, para garantir que a condição de equilíbrio fosse alcançada, seria necessário tempo de extração de pelo menos 3 horas para os solventes avaliados, com este tempo de extração os rendimentos aumentaram consideravelmente, bem como o teor de flavanóis totais nos extratos; por outro lado, a solubilidade proteica da fase rafinado diminuiu consideravelmente. Os dados experimentais de cinética por ATME foram modelados e os coeficientes de difusão para a gordura foram também estimados, sendo aproximadamente 5 vezes menores que os estimados para a PLE. Com base na determinação do tempo necessário para se atingir a condição de equilíbrio, realizou-se os experimentos para determinação dos coeficientes de partição (k) da gordura da casca da amêndoa de cacau, o qual permite estimar o número de estágios de extração para máxima exaustão dos sólidos em termos de teor de lipídeos. Estes experimentos mostraram que o solvente Et0 a temperaturas mais elevadas fornece coeficientes de partição maiores. Os valores de kgordura maiores obtidos para o Et0, se comparado com o solvente etanol em grau azeotrópico, indicam que seu emprego em processos de extração exigiria um número menor de estágios de contato para o esgotamento do sólido. Analisando os processos de extração empregados, pode-se concluir que a PLE apresenta eficiência superior na extração simultânea de flavanóis e compostos lipídicos da casca da amêndoa de cacau em relação a ATME, e também impacta menos a solubilidade proteica dos sólidos desengordurados oriundos do processo de extração, fato que demonstra sua elevada viabilidade técnica. / The main objective of this Ph.D. thesis was the valorization of the cocoa bean shell through the study of the technical feasibility of the use of atmospheric pressure extraction (ATME) and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) technologies for the extraction of fat and biocompounds of this material, using ethanol and isopropanol as solvents, which are GRAS solvents with potential application as substitutes for hexane in lipid extraction. In order for its viability in the application of extraction processes to be attested, initially, the dried cocoa bean shell (CS) was characterized. CS showed to be a nutritionally interesting material, with an intermediate content of lipids (between 18 to 22% d.b.), high fiber content, flavanols and alkaloids and high protein solubility (47-54%), besides not being contaminated by mycotoxins and cadmium. Its fat was remarkable for having a lipid profile similar to that of cocoa butter with a higher content of linoleic acid and quite high total tocopherols, which ranged from 1016 to 1273 mg / kg of fat, with the major isomers being (γ + β) tocopherols. Thus the PLE extraction kinetics of lipids and total flavanols (FLA) for systems containing CS and absolute ethanol (Et0) were studied at 60, 75 and 90 ° C in static times ranging from 3 to 50 minutes and mass ratio solid:solvent of 1: 3. From these experiments, 30 minutes were determined as the adequate time for the equilibrium condition to be reached for the three temperatures evaluated; from this time interval the lipid extraction is stabilized and the extraction yield of FLA is maximal. The raffinate phases, extract phases and fats from PLE were evaluated leading to the conclusion that this technique was extremely viable for extracting lipids, flavanols, alkaloids and tocopherols, providing very high extraction yields in a short period of time with a single stage of contact. Experimental data of PLE kinetics were modeled and the diffusion coefficients for fat were estimated. In addition, PLE did not affect the solubility of the proteins present in the material from extractions conducted at 60 and 75 °C, which allows obtaining a high value defatted meal. The investigation of the extraction process by ATME started with systems containing CS and solvents ethanol and isopropanol, in absolute and azeotrope degree, at 60, 75 and 90 ° C with mass ratio solid:solvent of 1:3 and time of extraction time of 1 hour. Under these conditions, the extraction experiments gave results of fat extraction yields less than expected. Despite this, it was possible to evaluate the effect of process parameters, temperature and type of solvent on the extraction process; it can be concluded that higher temperatures lead to higher extraction yields of all classes of compounds evaluated. For lipids, in general, the absolute isopropanol was the most efficient solvent, however, in the extraction of phenolic compounds, FLA and tocopherols the ethanol azeotropic showed better performance. For a more in-depth investigation, the kinetics of lipid extraction by ATME with ethanol in absolute and azeotropic degree at 75 and 90 °C were carried out. With these experiments it can be observed that, in order to guarantee that the equilibrium condition was reached, extraction time of at least 3 hours was required for the solvents evaluated, with this time of extraction the yields increased considerably, as well as the content of flavanols totals in extracts; on the other hand, the protein solubility of the raffinate phase decreased considerably. Experimental kinetic data by ATME were modeled and the diffusion coefficients for fat were also estimated, being approximately 5 times smaller than those estimated for PLE. Based on the determination of the time required to reach the equilibrium condition, the experiments were carried out to determine the partition coefficients (k) of the cocoa bean shell fat, which allows estimating the number of extraction stages to maximum depletion in terms of lipid content. These experiments showed that the solvent Et0 at higher temperatures provides larger partition coefficients. The higher kfat values obtained for Et0, when compared to ethanol solvent in azeotropic grade, indicate that their use in extraction processes would require a lower number of contact stages for the depletion of the solid. Analyzing the extraction processes applyed, it can be concluded that PLE has superior efficiency in the simultaneous extraction of flavanols and lipid compounds from the cocoa bean shell in relation to ATME, and has less impact on the protein solubility of the defatted meal, a fact that demonstrates its high technical feasibility.

O objetivo principal desta tese de doutorado foi a valorização da casca da amêndoa de cacau através do estudo da viabilidade técnica do emprego de tecnologias de extração a pressão atmosférica (ATME) e com líquido pressurizado (PLE) para extração da gordura e biocompostos deste material, utilizando etanol e isopropanol como solventes, os quais são solventes GRAS com aplicação potencial como substitutos do hexano na extração de lipídeos. Para que a sua viabilidade na aplicação de processos de extração fosse atestada, inicialmente, a casca da amêndoa de cacau seca (CS) foi caracterizada. A CS mostrou ser um material nutricionalmente interessante, com teor intermediário de lipídeos (entre 18 a 22% b.s.), elevado teor de fibras, flavanóis e alcaloides e alta solubilidade proteica (47 - 54%), além de não apresentar contaminação por micotoxinas e cádmio. Sua gordura se destacou por ter perfil lipídico semelhante ao da manteiga de cacau com teor superior de ácido linoleico e teores de tocoferóis totais bastante elevados os quais variaram entre 1016 a 1273 mg/kg de gordura, sendo os isômeros majoritários o (γ+β) tocoferois. Assim, a cinética de extração por PLE de lipídios e flavanóis totais (FLA) para sistemas contendo CS e etanol em grau absoluto (Et0) foi estudada nas temperaturas de 60, 75 e 90 °C em tempos estáticos variando de 3 a 50 minutos e razão mássica sólido:solvente de 1:3. A partir destes experimentos determinou-se 30 minutos como o tempo adequado para que a condição de equilíbrio fosse alcançada para as três temperaturas avaliadas; à partir deste intervalo de tempo a extração de lipídeos está estabilizada e o rendimento de extração de FLA é máximo. Os extratos, as gorduras e os sólidos desengordurados oriundos da PLE foram avaliados levando a concluir que esta técnica foi extremamente viável para extração de lipídeos, flavanóis, alcaloides e tocoferóis da CS, fornecendo rendimentos de extração bastante elevados, em curto período de tempo, em um único estágio de contato. Os dados experimentais da cinética por PLE foram modelados e os coeficientes de difusão para a gordura foram estimados. Além disso, pode-se verificar que a PLE não afetou a solubilidade das proteínas presentes no material das extrações conduzidas a 60 e 75 °C, o que permite a obtenção de um sólido desengordurado com elevado valor. A investigação do processo de extração por ATME iniciou-se com sistemas contendo CS e solventes etanol e isopropanol, em grau absoluto e azeotrópico, nas temperaturas de 60, 75 e 90 °C com razão mássica sólido:solvente de 1:3 e tempo de extração de 1 hora. Pode-se observar que, nessas condições, os experimentos de extração forneceram resultados de rendimento de extração de gordura aquém do esperado. Apesar disso, foi possível avaliar o efeito dos parâmetros de processo, temperatura e tipo de solvente, sobre o processo de extração; pode-se concluir que temperaturas mais elevadas levam a maiores rendimentos de extração de todas as classes de compostos avaliadas, para os lipídeos, em geral, o solvente isopropanol em grau absoluto foi o mais eficiente, entretanto, na extração de compostos fenólicos, FLA e tocoferóis o solvente etanol em grau azeotrópico apresentou melhor desempenho. Para uma investigação mais aprofundada, realizou-se o estudo da cinética de extração de lipídeos por ATME com os solventes etanol em grau absoluto e azeotrópico nas temperaturas de 75 e 90 °C. Com estes experimentos pode-se observar que, para garantir que a condição de equilíbrio fosse alcançada, seria necessário tempo de extração de pelo menos 3 horas para os solventes avaliados, com este tempo de extração os rendimentos aumentaram consideravelmente, bem como o teor de flavanóis totais nos extratos; por outro lado, a solubilidade proteica da fase rafinado diminuiu consideravelmente. Os dados experimentais de cinética por ATME foram modelados e os coeficientes de difusão para a gordura foram também estimados, sendo aproximadamente 5 vezes menores que os estimados para a PLE. Com base na determinação do tempo necessário para se atingir a condição de equilíbrio, realizou-se os experimentos para determinação dos coeficientes de partição (k) da gordura da casca da amêndoa de cacau, o qual permite estimar o número de estágios de extração para máxima exaustão dos sólidos em termos de teor de lipídeos. Estes experimentos mostraram que o solvente Et0 a temperaturas mais elevadas fornece coeficientes de partição maiores. Os valores de kgordura maiores obtidos para o Et0, se comparado com o solvente etanol em grau azeotrópico, indicam que seu emprego em processos de extração exigiria um número menor de estágios de contato para o esgotamento do sólido. Analisando os processos de extração empregados, pode-se concluir que a PLE apresenta eficiência superior na extração simultânea de flavanóis e compostos lipídicos da casca da amêndoa de cacau em relação a ATME, e também impacta menos a solubilidade proteica dos sólidos desengordurados oriundos do processo de extração, fato que demonstra sua elevada viabilidade técnica. / The main objective of this Ph.D. thesis was the valorization of the cocoa bean shell through the study of the technical feasibility of the use of atmospheric pressure extraction (ATME) and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) technologies for the extraction of fat and biocompounds of this material, using ethanol and isopropanol as solvents, which are GRAS solvents with potential application as substitutes for hexane in lipid extraction. In order for its viability in the application of extraction processes to be attested, initially, the dried cocoa bean shell (CS) was characterized. CS showed to be a nutritionally interesting material, with an intermediate content of lipids (between 18 to 22% d.b.), high fiber content, flavanols and alkaloids and high protein solubility (47-54%), besides not being contaminated by mycotoxins and cadmium. Its fat was remarkable for having a lipid profile similar to that of cocoa butter with a higher content of linoleic acid and quite high total tocopherols, which ranged from 1016 to 1273 mg / kg of fat, with the major isomers being (γ + β) tocopherols. Thus the PLE extraction kinetics of lipids and total flavanols (FLA) for systems containing CS and absolute ethanol (Et0) were studied at 60, 75 and 90 ° C in static times ranging from 3 to 50 minutes and mass ratio solid:solvent of 1: 3. From these experiments, 30 minutes were determined as the adequate time for the equilibrium condition to be reached for the three temperatures evaluated; from this time interval the lipid extraction is stabilized and the extraction yield of FLA is maximal. The raffinate phases, extract phases and fats from PLE were evaluated leading to the conclusion that this technique was extremely viable for extracting lipids, flavanols, alkaloids and tocopherols, providing very high extraction yields in a short period of time with a single stage of contact. Experimental data of PLE kinetics were modeled and the diffusion coefficients for fat were estimated. In addition, PLE did not affect the solubility of the proteins present in the material from extractions conducted at 60 and 75 °C, which allows obtaining a high value defatted meal. The investigation of the extraction process by ATME started with systems containing CS and solvents ethanol and isopropanol, in absolute and azeotrope degree, at 60, 75 and 90 ° C with mass ratio solid:solvent of 1:3 and time of extraction time of 1 hour. Under these conditions, the extraction experiments gave results of fat extraction yields less than expected. Despite this, it was possible to evaluate the effect of process parameters, temperature and type of solvent on the extraction process; it can be concluded that higher temperatures lead to higher extraction yields of all classes of compounds evaluated. For lipids, in general, the absolute isopropanol was the most efficient solvent, however, in the extraction of phenolic compounds, FLA and tocopherols the ethanol azeotropic showed better performance. For a more in-depth investigation, the kinetics of lipid extraction by ATME with ethanol in absolute and azeotropic degree at 75 and 90 °C were carried out. With these experiments it can be observed that, in order to guarantee that the equilibrium condition was reached, extraction time of at least 3 hours was required for the solvents evaluated, with this time of extraction the yields increased considerably, as well as the content of flavanols totals in extracts; on the other hand, the protein solubility of the raffinate phase decreased considerably. Experimental kinetic data by ATME were modeled and the diffusion coefficients for fat were also estimated, being approximately 5 times smaller than those estimated for PLE. Based on the determination of the time required to reach the equilibrium condition, the experiments were carried out to determine the partition coefficients (k) of the cocoa bean shell fat, which allows estimating the number of extraction stages to maximum depletion in terms of lipid content. These experiments showed that the solvent Et0 at higher temperatures provides larger partition coefficients. The higher kfat values obtained for Et0, when compared to ethanol solvent in azeotropic grade, indicate that their use in extraction processes would require a lower number of contact stages for the depletion of the solid. Analyzing the extraction processes applyed, it can be concluded that PLE has superior efficiency in the simultaneous extraction of flavanols and lipid compounds from the cocoa bean shell in relation to ATME, and has less impact on the protein solubility of the defatted meal, a fact that demonstrates its high technical feasibility.

Orientador: João Manoel Losada Moreira / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Energia, 2011

Por meio do método lattice Boltzmann (LBM), este projeto de pesquisa propõe a simulação computacional da extração dos compostos diterpênicos do café verde em sistemas com fluido pressurizado. Para isso foi adotado um modelo fenomenológico dinâmico e de primeira ordem quanto à dependência espacial. Usando a rede D1Q2, o LBM foi implementado com duas funções de distribuição de partículas, acompanhadas das respectivas funções de distribuição de equilíbrio. Cada função refere-se à concentração em uma dada fase (sólida e fluida). A previsão das curvas de rendimento pressupõe o conhecimento dos parâmetros do processo, tais como a difusividade mássica interna (intrapartícula), o coeficiente de partição volumétrica e a difusividade mássica axial. Para o devido ajuste destes parâmetros contra dados experimentais, foi desenvolvido um código computacional utilizando a técnica de gradiente descendente. Resultados numéricos das simulações foram comparados com dados experimentais e mostraram-se satisfatórios. Adicionalmente, foi realizada a análise da influência dos parâmetros supracitados mediante a criação de uma interface gráfica amigável para o código computacional original. Este projeto de pesquisa, além de fomentar a agregação de valor ao café, desenvolveu competências em modelagem e simulação de processos de extração de espécies químicas a partir de métodos numéricos. / Using the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM), this research project proposes a computer simulation of diterpene compounds extraction from green coffee beans in high pressure fluid systems. In order to do so, a dynamic phenomenological model with first-order spatial dependence was adopted. LBM was implemented on D1Q2 lattice, using two particle distribution functions, followed by the respective equilibrium distribution functions. Each function refers to the extract concentration in each phase, namely solid and fluid. Prediction of extract yield curves relies on process parameters such as internal (i.e., intraparticle) mass diffusivity, volumetric partition coefficient and axial mass diffusivity. Values of aforesaid parameters were fitted against experimental data via descendent gradient technique coupled to the LBM computer code and numerically simulated result were consistent. Besides modeling and simulation, this project performed the influence analysis of those process parameters. To this end, a user-friendly graphical interface for the original computer code was created. While fostering value to be added to coffee, this research project develops skills in modeling and simulation of chemical species extraction through numerical methods.

Por meio do método lattice Boltzmann (LBM), este projeto de pesquisa propõe a simulação computacional da extração dos compostos diterpênicos do café verde em sistemas com fluido pressurizado. Para isso foi adotado um modelo fenomenológico dinâmico e de primeira ordem quanto à dependência espacial. Usando a rede D1Q2, o LBM foi implementado com duas funções de distribuição de partículas, acompanhadas das respectivas funções de distribuição de equilíbrio. Cada função refere-se à concentração em uma dada fase (sólida e fluida). A previsão das curvas de rendimento pressupõe o conhecimento dos parâmetros do processo, tais como a difusividade mássica interna (intrapartícula), o coeficiente de partição volumétrica e a difusividade mássica axial. Para o devido ajuste destes parâmetros contra dados experimentais, foi desenvolvido um código computacional utilizando a técnica de gradiente descendente. Resultados numéricos das simulações foram comparados com dados experimentais e mostraram-se satisfatórios. Adicionalmente, foi realizada a análise da influência dos parâmetros supracitados mediante a criação de uma interface gráfica amigável para o código computacional original. Este projeto de pesquisa, além de fomentar a agregação de valor ao café, desenvolveu competências em modelagem e simulação de processos de extração de espécies químicas a partir de métodos numéricos. / Using the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM), this research project proposes a computer simulation of diterpene compounds extraction from green coffee beans in high pressure fluid systems. In order to do so, a dynamic phenomenological model with first-order spatial dependence was adopted. LBM was implemented on D1Q2 lattice, using two particle distribution functions, followed by the respective equilibrium distribution functions. Each function refers to the extract concentration in each phase, namely solid and fluid. Prediction of extract yield curves relies on process parameters such as internal (i.e., intraparticle) mass diffusivity, volumetric partition coefficient and axial mass diffusivity. Values of aforesaid parameters were fitted against experimental data via descendent gradient technique coupled to the LBM computer code and numerically simulated result were consistent. Besides modeling and simulation, this project performed the influence analysis of those process parameters. To this end, a user-friendly graphical interface for the original computer code was created. While fostering value to be added to coffee, this research project develops skills in modeling and simulation of chemical species extraction through numerical methods.

<p>Different sample preparation steps prior to a detection method are often essential in analytical chemistry. In this thesis, both static extractions and on-line coupled solid-phase extractions have been studied in combination with different detection techniques. Aspects of performing sample preparations in miniaturized analytical devices and the development of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) microchips are discussed. Polypyrrole was also evaluated as an electrochemically controllable stationary phase for solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and solid-phase extraction (SPE).</p><p>The first part of this thesis describes the extraction of an organic compound from a very complex solid matrix utilizing the pressurized-fluid extraction (PFE) technique. The presented results show that PFE is easily optimized and enables rapid extractions and extracts relatively free from interferences.</p><p>An integrated three-electrode device, which enabled electrochemical (EC) SPME under potential control, was developed. With this device, both anions and cations could be extracted employing two types of polypyrrole films. Planar micro band electrodes positioned at the end of a capillary were also used to electrochemically extract and detect anions in a miniaturized flow system. Different analyte concentrations and preconcentration times were examined, and good linear correlations were found between the extraction time and the detection response. The on-line coupling of a thin layer EC cell, with a polypyrrole coated working electrode, to different mass spectrometric (MS) techniques is also described and evaluated. The results show that EC-SPE, employing polypyrrole as stationary phase, can be used as a preconcentration step prior to detection.</p><p>In addition, this thesis describes the development and on-line coupling of a microelectrode array equipped PDMS microchip with an integrated graphite electrospray emitter to electrospray ionization (ESI) MS. The system enabled short transfer times and an EC conversion efficiency of 30% at a flow rate of 0.5 μL/min. The on-line EC/ESI-MS experiments were significantly simplified using a wireless Bluetooth battery-powered EC instrument.</p>

<p>This thesis covers a wide range of analytical method development for lipid analysis in complex biological samples; from sample preparation using pressurized fluid extraction (PFE) and separation with reversed phase capillary liquid chromatography (RP-LC) to detection by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI/MS) and tandem MS.</p><p>The requirements for fast, reliable and selective extraction methods with minimal usage of solvents have accelerated the development of new extraction techniques. PFE is one of the new automated, fast and efficient liquid extraction techniques which use elevated temperature and pressure with standard liquid solvents. In this thesis the reliability and efficiency of the PFE technique was investigated for the extraction of total lipid content from cod, herring muscle and human brain tissue as well as for pesticides from fatty foodstuffs. Improved or comparable efficiencies were achieved with reduced time and solvent consumption as compared to traditional methods. </p><p>A RP-LC coupled online to ESI/MS for the analysis of phosphatidylcholine (PC) and sphingomyelin (SM) molecular species was developed and used for the analysis of brain lipids from eight groups of mice treated with vehicle and various neuroleptics. The effect of postnatal iron administration in lipid composition and behavior was investigated. Whether or not these effects could be altered by subchronic administration of the neuroleptics (clozapine and haloperidol) were examined. The results support the hypothesis that an association between psychiatric disorders, behavior abnormalities and lipid membrane constitution in the brain exists.</p><p>Finally, a tandem MS precursor ion scan was used to analyze the developmental profile of brain sulfatide accumulation in arylsulfatase A (ASA) deficient (ASA -/-) as compared to wild type control (ASA +/+) mice. The ASA -/- mice were developed as a model of the monogenic disease metachromatic leukodystrophy with an established deficiency of the lysosomal enzyme ASA. The results showed that an alteration in the composition of sulfatide molecular species was observed between the ASA -/- and ASA +/+ mice.</p><p>This thesis shows that modern analytical methods can provide new insights in the extraction and analysis of lipids from complex biological samples.</p>

<p>The challenge for the future was defined by the Brundtland Commission (1987) and by the Rio Declaration (1992), in which the fundamental principles for achieving a sustainable development were provided. Sustainable chemistry can be defined as the contribution of chemistry to the implementation of the Rio Declaration. This thesis shows how Pressurized Fluid Extraction (PFE) can be utilized in chemical analysis, and how this correlates to Green Chemistry.</p><p>The reliability and efficiency of the PFE technique was investigated for a variety of analytes and matrices. Applications discussed include: the extraction of the antioxidant Irganox 1076 from linear low density polyethylene, mobile forms of phosphorus in lake sediment, chlorinated paraffins from source-separated household waste, general analytical method for pesticide residues in rape seed, total lipid content in cod muscle, and squalene in olive biomass. Improved or comparable extraction yields were achieved with reduced time and solvent consumption. The decrease in use of organic solvents was 50-90%, resulting in minimal volatile organic compounds emissions and less health-work problem. Due to higher extraction temperatures and more efficient extractions, the selection of solvent is not as important as at lower temperatures, which makes it possible to choose less costly, more environmentally and health beneficial solvents. In general, extraction times are reduced to minutes compared to several hours. As a result of the very short extraction times, the amount of co-extracted material is relatively low, resulting in fewer clean-up step and much shorter analysis time. Selective extractions could be obtained by varying the solvent or solvent mixture and/or using adsorbents. </p><p>In this thesis, the PFE technique was compared to the twelve principles of Green Chemistry, and it was shown that it follows several of the principles, thus giving a major contribution to sustainable chemistry. </p>

In a Modular High Temperature Gas Reactor (MHGTR), the Pressurized Conduction Cooldown (PCC) event is an accident scenario in which there is a loss of forced convection of the coolant through the system but the pressure boundary remains intact. When the PCC event occurs, natural circulation onsets which results in a flow and temperature reversal, resulting in hot helium flowing into the upper plenum which could imping upon the upper plenum head. The High Temperature Test Facility (HTTF), which is being designed and constructed at Oregon State University, is a scaled thermal test facility of the MHTGR which is being built for both code validation purposes and to examine specific flow phenomena of the gas reactor. This study is being performed to determine how the HTTF simulates the same conditions as the MHTGR under this scenario through the use of scaling parameters and computational fluid dynamics. / Graduation date: 2013

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs), two groups of struc-turally related chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons, generally referred to as “dioxins” are of great concern due to their extreme toxicity and presence in all compartments of the environment. Since they occur at very low levels, their analysis is complex and challenging, and there is a need for cost-efficient, reliable and rapid analytical alternatives to the expensive methods in-volving use of gas chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS). It is im-portant to routinely monitor food and feed items to detect contaminations at an early stage. For the regulation of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in food and feed according to current legis-lation, large numbers of samples have to be analysed. Furthermore, soils at many industrial sites are also contaminated with dioxins and need remediation. In order to optimize the cost-efficiency of reclamation activities it is important to acquire information about the levels and distribution of dioxins in the contaminated areas. The aim of the studies underlying this thesis was to investigate the potential of comprehen-sive two-dimensional gas chromatography with a micro-electron capture detector (GC × GC-µECD) as a cost-effective method for analysing dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in food, feed, fly ash and contaminated soils. Quantification studies of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs were con-ducted and results were compared with GC-HRMS reference data. Generally, there was good agreement between both the congener-specific results and data expressed as total toxic equiva-lents (TEQs). The developed GC × GC-µECD method meets the European Community (EC) requirements for screening methods for control of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in food and feed. The presented results also indicate that GC × GC-µECD has potential to be used as a routine method for the congener-specific analysis of 2,3,7,8-PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs in matrices such as food and feed, fly ash and soil. However, to fully exploit the potential of the GC × GC-µECD technique, it should be combined with a fast and cost-efficient sample preparation procedure. Therefore, a number of certified reference materials (CRMs) were extracted using a new shape-selective pressurized liquid extraction technique with integrated carbon fractionation (PLE-C), and the purified extracts were analysed for PCDD/Fs using GC × GC-µECD. The results compared well with the certified values of a fly ash and a sandy soil CRM, but they were much too high for a com-plex clay soil CRM. It was concluded that this combination of techniques was very promising for screening ash and highly permeable soils. Further assessments and method revisions are still required before GC × GC-µECD can be used on a routine basis, and available software packages need to be refined in order to accelerate the data-handling procedures, which currently restrict the sample throughput.