A prototype cost estimating tool was built using an iterative design approach to help training managers assess the impact of changes in the training environment on course life cycle costs. In the first of two evaluations, training managers evaluated the prototype tools during a demonstration for both functionality and face validity in their environment. They also evaluated the usefulness of different levels of graphics and detail in a guide designed to assist the user with the tool. Feedback from the first evaluation was used to revise the prototype tool, and the guide usefulness ratings were used to select the guide for use in the second evaluation. The impact of the guide on performance with the tool was analyzed in a second evaluation. The second evaluation analyzed the difference in performance of two groups. The first group only had the users manual to help them solve the problems. The second group had the users manual and a performance aid to help them. Subjects' performance was compared on the number of spreadsheets used, number of errors made, and the amount of time they took to complete the tasks. The two groups did not significantly differ on these measures. / Ph. D.

Thesis (MBA (Business Management))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Over the last few years consumers have become more environmentally focused and have transferred this pressure upwards through the supply chain to retailers and manufacturers in turn. One of the areas under scrutiny is food packaging, as this does not form part of the product being consumed or used. Packaging's primary function is to protect the contents from the time of manufacture until it is used and the environmental footprint of packaging is only a small portion of the overall food chains'. In a study conducted by Oki and Sasaki (2000) they concluded that, a shortage of packaging materials in nations with inadequate social infrastructures causes extremely heavy losses of foodstuffs. In developed countries foodstuff waste is close to 1 %, whereas in less developed countries the waste can be as high as 50% to 75%. Functional packaging contributes to minimising this waste. Packaging media are often chosen for their ability to satisfy the product's requirements, but different materials are perceived by the public to be more or Jess environmentally friendly, independent of the functional requirements. The products with the better environmental reputation are generally those that are recycled and where companies have promoted the recycling efforts. However the perception does not necessarily reflect the actual environmental impact of the product type. In many instances, when one considers all of the energy costs and pollution effects associated with a particular product's manufacture and recycling, it can have a harsher impact than a single-use product that is disposed of after use. The long term business success of companies in the packaging industry will be linked to consumer preferences for functionally suitable, environmentally friendly packaging. To determine a product's environmental effect, a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) is often used. LCA is a quantitative procedure to assess the environmental burdens associated with the life cycle of a product, process or service. The complete life cycle of a product includes the extraction of raw materials (including water), processing, transportation, manufacturing, distribution, the use and reuse of materials, maintenance, recycling and waste disposal. (Brent, A.C.: 2003, 115). In this report LCI's were compiled for three South African product categories, selected on the basis of volume used in the consumer market and suitable comparison products being available. Having completed the LCI based on realistic packaging products and production methods, the results per category can be presented. For a functional unit comparison of two cup types, a volume of 1000 litres was used. The results show that per functional unit, expanded polystyrene cups use 27% less energy, but produce 32% more C02 emissions than paper cups. The paper cups however use 51% more water. Neither product shows a significant overall environmental benefit over the other. For a functional unit comparison of two burger boxes, a functional number of 10 000 boxes was used. The results show that per functional unit the carton board boxes use 89% more energy, produce 268% more CO2 emissions and use 239% more water. Overall, the polystyrene burger box has a lower environmental impact. For a functional unit comparison of two protein packaging trays, a functional number of 10 000 trays was used. The results show that per unit, polypropylene trays use 94% more energy, produce 197% more C02 emissions, but only use 76% of the water compared to a foamed polystyrene tray. The LCI study has produced suitable data to provide a summary where aspects of the environmental impacts of the products can be compared. This information can be used to understand and improve the environmental footprint of the products or to educate the stakeholders who are involved in the packaging decisions. The LCI results differ from similar international studies due to the importation of most raw materials and high air emissions from local electricity production. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Verbruikers het die afgelope paar jaar baie meer omgewingsbewus geword en plaas dus al hoe meer opwaardse druk via die verskaffingsketting op kleinhandelaars en vervaardigers. Een van die areas onder verdenking is voedselverpakking, want dit vorm nie deel van die produk wat verbruik word nie. Verpakking se primere funksie is die beskerming van die inhoud daarvan vanaf vervaardiging tot dit verbruik word. Die omgewingsimpak van verpakking is slegs 'n klein gedeelte van die algehele voedselketting. Navorsing deur Oki en Sasaki (2000) toon dat 'n tekort aan verpakkingsmateriaal in nasies met skaars sosiale infrastrukture veroorsaak geweldige verliese in voedsel. In ontwikkelde lande is voedselvermorsing ongeveer 1% terwyl minder ontwikkelde lande se voedselvermorsing so hoog as 50% tot 75% is. Funksionele verpakking help om die vermorsing te verminder. Verpakkingsmedia word dikwels gekies vir hul vermoee om aan die produk se vereistes te voldoen, maar verskillende materiale word onafhanklik van hul funksionele vereistes deur die publiek as meer of minder omgewingsvriendelik beskou. Die produkte met die beter omgewingsvriendelike reputasie is gewoonlik die wat herwin word en ook waar die herwinningspogins deur die maatskappye bemark word. Die persepsie weerspieel egter nie noodwendig die eintlike omgewingsimpak van die produktipe nie. Dit gebeur dikwels dat wanneer al die energiekostes en besoedelingsgevolge wat met die vervaardiging en herwinning van 'n spesifieke produk in ag geneem word, dit 'n erger impak as 'n produk wat slegs eenmalig gebruik en dan weggegooi word, het. Die langtermyn sukses van maatskappye in die verpakkingsindustrie sal gekoppel word aan verbruikersvoorkeure vir funksionele gepaste, omgewingsvriendelike verpakking. 'n Lewensiklus Analise word dikwels gebruik om 'n produk se omgewingsimpak te bepaal. Dit is 'n kwantitatiewe prosedure wat die omgewingslaste wat met die lewensiklus van ' n produk, proses of diens verband hou assesseer. Die volledige lewensiklus van 'n produk sluit die ekstraksie van rou materiaal (water ingesluit), prossesering, vervoer, vervaardiging, verspreiding, die gebruik en hergebruik van materiaal, instandhouding, herwinning en afval verwydering in (Brent. A.C.: 2003. 115). In hierdie verslag word die Lewensiklus Analise van drie Suid-Afrikaanse produkkategoriee saamgestel. Die kategoriee is geselekteer op grond van die volume gebruik in die verbruikersmark en ook die gepaste vergelykbare produkte wat beskikbaar is. Nadat die Lewensiklus Analise afgehandel is, gebaseer op realistiese verpakkingsprodukte en produksiemetodes, is dit moontlik om die resultate per kategorie voor te stel. 'n Volume van 1000 liter was gebruik vir die funksionele eenheidsvergelyking van twee houertipes. Die resultate toon dat, per funksionele eendheid, die polistireen houers 27% minder energie verbruik, maar dit produseer 32% meer C02 uitlatings as papierhouers. Die papierhouers gebruik egter 51 % meer water. Nie een van die produkte toon egter 'n beduidende algehele omgewingsvoordeel oor die ander nie. 'n Funksionele nommer van 10000 houers was gebruik vir 'n funksionele eenheidssvergelyking van burgerhouers. Die resultate wys dat die kartonhouers, per funksionele eeheid, 89% meer energie verbruik, 268% meer C02 uitlatings produseer en 239% meer water gebruik. Die polistireen bugerhouer het oor die algemeen 'n laer omgewingsimpak. 'n Funksionele nommer van 10 000 houers is gebruik vir die funksionele eenheidsvergelyking van twee protiene verpakkinghouers. Die resultate toon dat, per eenheid, polypropylene houers 94% meer energie verbruik, 197% meer C02 uitlatings produseer, maar net 76% water gebruik in vergelyking met die polistireen houer. Die Lewensiklus eenheidsvergelyking het gepaste data voorsien wat 'n opsomming verskaf waar die aspekte van die omgewingsimpak van die produkte vergelyk kan word. Hierdie inligting kan gebruik word om die omgewingsinvloed van die produkte te verstaan en te verbeter en ook om die deelnemers betrokke by die verpakkingsbesluite op te voed. Die Lewensiklus Analise resultate verskil van soortgelyke internasionale studies as gevolg van die invoer van die meeste rou materiale en groter lug besoedeling van plaaslike elektrisiteitsproduksie.

Thesis (MBA (Business Management))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: An investigation of the servicisation phenomenon and its influence on the product life cycle of high technologically manufactured goods. Rising demand for services and ongoing commoditisation of goods has forced businesses to purse alternatives to differentiate themselves in the market place. This has renewed interest to reposition the unit of exchange from a goods dominant to a service dominant perspective. Although applicability of the product life cycle as a marketing tool has often been questioned, it continues to form a fundamental building block of marketing theory. The purpose of this research report was to determine whether the servicisation phenomenon can be utilised as part of corporate strategy to extend the product life cycle of high technological goods. The primary objective was to gain new insight into the interesting and profitable combination of goods and services within the goods manufacturing industry. The main focus was to test whether a service dominant business model can extend the product life cycle. A case study of the product life cycle of the Apple iPod versus Creative’s digital media player value offerings was analysed. The main finding was that the iPod as opposed to Creative’s media player, did show signs of a longer product life cycle in the role of a service delivery vehicle. The service dominant business model has created many alternative revenue streams for Apple. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Ondersoek oor die dienste verskynsel en die invloed daarvan op die produkleefsiklus van hoë tegnologiese goedere. ‘n Toename in die aanvraag na dienste, en voortdurende omskepping van verbruikersartikels in kommoditeite, forseer besighede om na alternatiewe te soek om hulself in die markplek te differensieer. Daar is dus nuwe belang om die eenheid van handel te herdefinieer vanuit ‘n diens perspektief teenoor die tradisionele goedere een. Alhoewel die toepaslikheid van die produkleefsiklus, as ‘n instrument vir bemarkingsbesluitneming, talle keer bevraagteken is, bly dit ‘n hoeksteen van bemarkingsteorie. Die doel van hierdie navorsingsprojek was om te bepaal of die dienste verskynsel gebruik kan word in korporatiewe strategie om die produkleefsiklus te verleng. Die hoof doelwit was om nuwe insig te kry oor hoe ‘n produk en dienste gekombineer kan word om winste van vervaardigers te verbeter. Die hoof fokus was om te toets of ‘n diensgesentreerde besigheidsmodel die produkleefsiklus kan verleng. ‘n Studie van die produkleefsiklus van Apple se iPod is gedoen teenoor dié van Creative se digitale mediaspeler. Daar is bepaal dat die iPod, teenoor Creative se mediaspeler, wel tekens van ‘n langer produkleefsiklus toon, in die rol van ‘n diensleweringsinstrument. Dié diens gesentreerde besigheidsmodel voorsien Apple van vele alternatiewe bronne van inkomste.

published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management

"Concurrent Engineering (CE) has already initiated a cultural change in the design and manufacturing of new products. It is expected to lead to better engineered and faster built products. But, in order for a company to take advantage of the power of CE, the members of product development teams have to be educated in the CE method of product development and how decisions made about one aspect of a design can affect other aspects. They also have to be educated in the usefulness of the tools that can be used for CE. Those tools include intelligent agents which can be used to offer design suggestions and criticisms. The goal of this project is to build a computer system which will simulate a design environment and demonstrate the essential aspects of CE, in a way that they can be intuitively understood. It is supported by a grant from the Competitive Product Development Institute at the Digital Equipment Corporation."

Orientador: Sandro Donnini Mancini / Banca: Gerson Araujo de Medeiros / Banca: José Lázaro Ferraz / Resumo: Os equipamentos eletroeletrônicos fazem parte de uma indústria em expansão na qual a constante inovação torna-se rapidamente obsoletos. O aumento de resíduos eletroeletrônicos incitou várias políticas de descarte e reciclagem, mas ainda faltam estudos qualitativos para que se possa entender quais são os maiores impactos no meio ambiente e o que se fazer para amenizá-los. A pesquisa consistirá na avaliação do desempenho ambiental de dois modelos de impressoras. Será baseada na metodologia de Avaliação de Ciclo da Vida e na posterior simulação de cenários de disposição final. Fez-se uma caracterização de materiais, peças e massas. A impressora A apresentou um impacto 35% maior que a impressora B devido às suas diferenças de composição e funcionalidades. Nos dois casos, o material em maior quantidade e responsável pela maior parcela do impacto calculado foi o HIPS (Poliestireno de Alto Impacto) e a maioria dos impactos pode ser vista na categoria de Combustíveis Fósseis / Abstract: The electronic equipments are part of a booming industry where constant innovation makes them quickly obsolete equipment. The increase of electronic waste concern generated various disposal and recycling policies but there is still a lak of quantitative studies on the impacts of such products so that they can understand what the major impacts on the environment and what can be done to mitigate the impacts. This research consisted in the characterization of two printers of different models regarding to materials, parts, and weight and using the tool life cycle analyses to quantify the environmental impact of each of them separately and combined. To complete the study a simulation disposal scenarios was made with one of the printers to understand the impacts of recycling, reuse and disposal in a sanitary landfill. The printer. A presented a 35% greater impact than printer B due to their differences in composition and functionality. In both cases the material in greater quantity and responsible for most of the impact was HIPS (High Impact Poltystyrene) and the largest share of the impacts can be seen in the category of fossil fuels / Mestre

As a result of rapid product development, the product life cycle has become shorter, and thus the amount of waste from discarded industrial products has risen dramatically. An awareness of the world???s environmental problems has stimulated researchers to explore the opportunities to reuse, recycle and remanufacture end-of-life products. Disassembly is a systematic approach to separating products into components or subassemblies in order to facilitate recovery of components or materials. However, the full disassembly of a product tends to be unproductive due to technical and cost constraints and product conditions after usage. Therefore, selective disassembly has been introduced as a more practical approach, where only a limited number of disassembly paths that lead to selected parts with recovering potential are considered. This research focuses on the development of a selective disassembly methodology by reversing an assembly sequencing approach. The methodology uses a step-by-step approach to generate a disassembly sequence diagram. This involves listing all the parts within the product, generating a liaison diagram to illustrate part relationships and then establishing precedence rules describing prerequisite actions for each liaison. This is followed by segregating disassembly paths that lead to the removal of selected parts or subassemblies. Then a winnowing process is applied to these paths to eliminate invalid disassembly states and transitions. The last step is to select the optimal disassembly path by using the time requirement as the main selection criterion. In order to shorten the time for carrying out the sequencing process, a javabased program that is capable of performing the first three steps has been created. The program requires three basic inputs in forms of precedence rules, and user-required part (s) and disassembly rules, prescribing which liaison (s) should be done subsequent to a particular liaison. The viability of the methodology and the program is proved through seven case studies conducted on a fishing reel, a single-hole punch, a kettle, an entire washing machine and three washing machine subassemblies. The application of the program allows the users to determine an optimal disassembly sequence in a very short time and with only basic product information as the input.

Wind energy is a promising alternative energy source due to its environmental, economic, and social benefits and, as such, has garnered public support and government incentives for its development and implementation. With the growing number of wind parks in Oregon, a life cycle assessment (LCA) study for a representative new wind park is needed to investigate the potential impacts on the environment. One of the major drawbacks of wind energy generation is its variability due to the stochastic nature of wind. To make wind energy a more reliable source, wind energy generation should be supplemented with controllable energy generation or storage. Thus, the aim of this research is to improve the understanding of the effects of supplemental energy systems on the environmental impacts of wind energy systems. First, the environmental impact of a single wind turbine is examined from raw material extraction to the end of life stage. Research needs are identified to support the assessment of the environmental impacts of wind energy and supplemental energy systems from a life cycle perspective. Next, supplemental electricity generation systems investigated are biomass, hydro, and natural gas electricity generation, and zinc-bromine battery storage. Finally, the results for each system are compared to coal energy generation. It appears that the wind park has lower environmental impact than coal energy generation when paired with any of the complimentary systems investigated. Overall, hydropower appears to be the best option to supplement wind power from an environmental perspective for a potential wind park site in northern Oregon. / Graduation date: 2013

With the advent of digital imaging technology, the options available to consumers in consumer imaging have increased tremendously. From image capture through image processing and output, many options have emerged; however, the relative environmental impacts of these different options are not clear cut. Simplistically, one might say that the use of a digital camera has a lesser environmental burden than the use of a reloadable film camera because the image produced as a result of using the digital camera avoids chemicals in film developing. However, digital cameras require electronics and computers that need energy; and, energy production is one of the contributors to greenhouse gasses like CO2. Assessment of the environmental impacts of these different options can help provide feedback to decision makers and insights that will help reduce environmental impact through product system design. One tool that has been used to relate environmental impacts with functions provide to consumers through products or services is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). LCA, which has been standardized by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in ISO14000, is used here to evaluate both traditional film and digital imaging systems. Data from publicly available databases and both external and internal Eastman Kodak Company studies were utilized to develop LCA modules for the different processes involved. Product and service business models are explored for both technologies through ten different imaging and output scenarios. The functional unit used is the capture, processing and output of one 4 x6 image. Four impact categories (energy use, greenhouse emission, water use and waste generation) across four life cycle phases (upstream, distribution, use, and end of life) are explored for the ten scenarios. LCA is also evaluated as a tool to help facilitate strategic level environmental performance issues with both new and established business activities. Sensitivity analysis is also performed to evaluate the impact of assumptions made in the course of the assessment and comments are made regarding the effectiveness of LCA for strategic assessment and product service strategies in lowering environmental impact. Results indicate that the lowest impact scenarios are Digital Capture to LCD Display for Greenhouse Emissions and Energy Use and Film Capture to Wholesale Print for Water Use and Waste Generation. Highest impacts were seen for Greenhouse Emissions in the Film Capture to Retail Print scenario. In the Energy Use and Water Use category, the Digital Capture to CRT Computer Display was the highest scenario. For Waste Generation, the Digital Capture to Inkjet Print was the highest impact scenario.

This thesis will investigate the possibility of leasing as a 'greener' form of business transaction. With leasing, the customer pays for the service obtained form the product, but does not own the physical asset; ownership remains with the lessor. This has been claimed to increase resource productivity and close material loops. Numerous complications exist, however, such as tax regulations limiting operating leases to terms of 75% of the total product's life. In addition, no clear pattern has emerged in leasing practices, and in most cases manufacturers approach leasing on an ad hoc basis. Research has found that usage-phase impacts play a major role in determining the advantages realized by leasing. Products such as vehicles or refrigerators that continually consume energy negatively impact the environment much more during their use than during manufacturing or transportation. Because most lease agreements contain maintenance contracts, the opportunity to upgrade and increase product efficiency during this use-phase is paramount to reducing negative impacts. Remanufacturing also shows potential to further reduce resource requirements. However, if product efficiency is not improving significantly, remanufacturing alone does not make a significant impact. In some cases, such as carpets, remanufacturing is not practical, but recycling can be utilized. However, tax regulations require leased terms to be less than that of a product's designed life, hastening replacement. This has the potential to offset any advantages seen with a lease agreement. Academic work in this area remains very limited and product-specific. Case study analyses performed in this thesis found that increased product turnover can actually be environmentally beneficial when product technology is improving. These gains can be further improved with remanufacturing and optimized product replacement moderated by lease agreements. If usage energy is significantly less than manufacturing energy, leasing has little value for reducing impacts. Also leasing may motivate closed material loops, without improving product efficiencies there is no advantage to optimizing life cycles with lease contracts.