Hierdie studie ondersoek die vingersettings wat Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) moontlik gebruik het. Die meeste klawerbordspelers speel een of ander tyd in hul lewe ‘n komposisie van J. S. Bach. Aangesien Bach min inligting oor vingersettings in sy komposisies nagelaat het, bemoeilik dit die taak van die klawerbordspeler om ’n histories-korrekte uitvoering van ’n bepaalde komposisie te lewer. As gevolg hiervan word navorsers genoop om ander bronne te raadpleeg wat kan lei tot ’n beter insig oor sy vingersettingpraktyke. Die bronne naaste aan Bach, dit wil sê sy leerlinge, tydgenote en Bach self verskaf die mees objektiewe inligting oor die aanvaarbare gebruik van vingersettings tydens Bach se leeftyd. Tydens hierdie ondersoek na historiese vingersettingpraktyke is bevind dat dit verskil van die huidige. Vingersettings vir ‘n komposisie is gekies sodat die nodige artikulasie, ritme en frasering daardeur aangehelp en vergemaklik word. Verskillende lande het verskillende reëls oor die gebruik van vingersettings. Dit sou wenslik wees om, sover prakties moontlik, vingersettings vir ’n komposisie van Bach te probeer gebruik soos hy dit in daardie periode sou gedoen het. Die Applicatio (BWV 994) en Praeambulum (BWV 930) is die enigste twee komposisies met vingersettings van Bach self. Dit is egter vir die beginner klawerbord-student geskryf en as gevolg hiervan is dit moeilik om vingersettings volgens Bach se praktyke te bepaal vir sy latere en meer gevorderde werke. Vingersettings in hierdie twee komposisies bewys egter dat Bach vroeë vingersettingpraktyke as kind geleer het en dit steeds as geldige vingersettings beskou het. In die agtiende eeu in Duitsland het ‘n beduidende groep amateur-musikante ontstaan wat onderrig oor die bespeling van die klawerbord benodig het. As gevolg hiervan is verskeie handboeke deur verskillende klawerbordspelers gepubliseer. ʼn Studie hiervan gee insig oor aanvaarbare vingersettingpraktyke en metodes van die tyd. Aangesien dit tydens Bach se leeftyd in Duitsland in gebruik was, is dit heel waarskynlik dat Bach in aanraking gekom het met klawerbordmetodes soos in die handboeke beskryf en moontlik self daarvan vir sy eie spel gebruik het. Twee verskillende strominge by die gebruik van vingersettings word aangetref tydens Bach se leeftyd, een meer konserwatief, die ander meer progressief. Albei strominge se gebruik van vingersettings is steeds konserwatief in vergelyking met moderne klawerbordspel. Teen die laat agtiende eeu word daar egter wel ‘n meer progressiewe gebruik van vingersettings aangetref. Bach het soms van sy leerlinge verwag om sy musiek te kopieer en in sommige van die gekopieerde komposisies was vingersettings ingeskryf deur sy leerlinge. Vingersettings in hierdie komposisies kan as ʼn riglyn dien van die vingersettings wat Bach self gebruik het. Uit hierdie studie is dit duidelik dat daar nie met sekerheid vingersettings volgens Bach se praktyke bepaal kan word nie aangesien min inligting van Bach self kom. Dit is egter moontlik om sekere algemene riglyne daar te stel. Die gevolgtrekking van hierdie studie is dat die vingersettings van Bach reeds heelwat ooreenstem met moderne vingersettingpraktyke, maar dat sekere historiese praktyke steeds ʼn plek gehad het. ENGLISH : This study investigates the fingering which Johann Sebastian Bach could possibly have used. Some time or another in the life of most keyboard players, they play a composition of J.S. Bach. Since Bach left little information about fingering in his compositions, it makes it difficult for the keyboard player to give an historically correct performance of a particular composition. This results in researchers being forced to consult other sources which may give them more insight into Bach’s fingering practices. The sources closest to Bach, i.e. his pupils, contemporaries and Bach himself, supply the most objective information regarding the acceptable use of fingering during Bach’s lifetime. During this investigation into historic fingering practices it became evident that they differ from current practices. Fingering for a composition was chosen in order to assist and simplify the required articulation, rhythm and phrasing. Different countries have different rules for the use of fingering practices. It would be desirable to use the actual fingering in a Bach composition that he would have used in his time, if at all practical. The Applicatio (BWV 994) and Praeambulum (BWV 930) are the only two compositions that include Bach’s own fingering. However, they were written for beginner keyboard players and therefore it is difficult to determine what fingering Bach would have required in his later and more advanced works. Fingering in these two compositions, however, show that Bach’s earlier fingering practices would have been learnt in his childhood and that he must still have regarded them as relevant. In the eighteenth century, a significant group of amateur musicians in Germany needed instruction on playing the keyboard. As a result a variety of manuals were published by different keyboard players. A study of these gives insight into acceptable fingering practices and methods of this period. As these were used in Germany during Bach’s lifetime, it is probable that he came in contact with keyboard methods described in the manuals and probably used them himself. Two different approaches to fingering practices, one more conservative, and another more progressive, were used during Bach’s lifetime. Both approaches to fingering are still conservative in comparison with modern keyboard playing. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, however, a more progressive use of fingering came into being. Bach sometimes required his students to copy his compositions, and fingering was included in some of the students’ copies. These fingering systems can be used as a guideline to those that Bach would have used himself. It can be deduced from this study that it is not possible to state with any certainty what fingerings were actually used by Bach, as little information came from Bach himself. It is, however, possible to present certain general guidelines. This study concludes that the fingering of Bach’s was in keeping with modern practices, but that certain historical practices were also in use. Copyright / Dissertation (MMus)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Music / unrestricted

Temporal constructions in Afrikaans are ambiguous with respect to aspectual meaning. The past tense construction with het ge-, for instance, can be interpreted as progressive, perfective or anterior. In the same vein, the unmarked present tense construction can be interpreted as a construction with a progressive or a perfective meaning. This aspectual ambiguity of the Afrikaans verbal system has a significant effect on the way in which Afrikaans grammar is described or understood. The observation by native speakers, linguists, literary specialists and writers that the temporal constructions in Afrikaans are vague or ambiguous with regard to aspectual meaning has led to certain views about the expression of tense in the language. In Afrikaans literature, for example, there is a tradition to write prose primarily in the present tense, because of the perception that the past tense is not adequate to convey particular semantic nuances. Furthermore, certain speakers of Afrikaans and linguists believe that Afrikaans grammar has been simplified and just does not have aspect. However, Afrikaans possesses alternative strategies to specify aspectual meaning. The five prototypical ways of expressing aspectual meaning in Afrikaans are i) lexical constructions (such as adverbs and conjunctions); ii) constructions with affixes, iii) reduplication constructions; iv) passive constructions; and v) periphrastic constructions. Aspectual meaning in Afrikaans is an almost entirely unexplored research field. In my opinion, the literature on the expressions of aspectual meaning in Afrikaans contains two shortcomings. First, Afrikaans aspect needs to be described theoretically. Second, more research is needed concerning the specific ways in which aspectual meaning is expressed in Afrikaans. The scope of this entire research field is too large for a single study. For that reason, the present study aims to reveal the way in which periphrastic constructions are used to convey progressive meaning. As far as temporal meaning is concerned, it is possible to make a distinction between tempus meaning, which stands for deictic temporal meanings (i.e. past, present and future tense), and aspectual meaning, which stands for non-deictic temporal meanings such as duration, point of view and the internal structure of the situation. One can also distinguish between lexical and grammatical aspect. Lexical aspect has to do with the conceptual properties of a situation or, in other words, with the question whether it is static or dynamic, telic or atelic and durative. There are five situation types: states, activities, achievements, accomplishments and semelfactives. Grammatical aspect concerns the point of view from which the situation is perceived. One can make a distinction between perfective and imperfective grammatical aspect. The latter can be subdivided into imperfectives conveying habitual meaning and imperfectives conveying progressive meaning. Grammaticalisation theory is useful and a relevant tool to provide answers to the afore-mentioned research questions. First, it offers insight into the manner in which the ambiguous tempus constructions of Afrikaans came into being. Second, it can be used to show how the alternative aspectual constructions have developed and how they are currently employed in the language. For the purpose of this study, grammaticalisation is regarded as language change in which a construction loses its lexical meaning and comes to express grammatical meaning. Grammatical constructions can be used in more contexts than their lexical counterparts, as grammaticalised uses have been generalized contextually. Grammatical constructions lose the morphosyntactic properties typical of their lexical counterparts and assume grammatical properties. Grammaticalisation is a typological phenomenon and the lexical origin of a grammatical construction is often the same in different languages. Grammaticalizing constructions exhibit an increase in frequency. Afrikaans and Dutch are closely related languages and possess cognate periphrastic progressive constructions, viz. i) the aan het- / aan die- ii) VPOS te / VPOS en-; en iii) bezig- / besig- progressive constructions. To examine the use of periphrastic progressive constructions in Afrikaans from a grammaticalisation perspective, I compare the results of a study of these constructions in an Afrikaans corpus to those of previous studies of the periphrastic progressive constructions in Dutch. The respective constructions are compared on the basis of four criteria, viz. i) frequency; ii) verb collocations; iii) transitivity; and iv) combinatorial possibilities with other aspectual periphrastic constructions. The lexical origins of the various constructions are also considered. The comparison of the constructions on the basis of the afore-mentioned criteria makes it possible to demonstrate how the periphrastic progressive constructions in Afrikaans came into being and how they have developed into grammatical constructions conveying aspectual meaning and in which way the different Afrikaans periphrastic constructions express progressive meaning. / PhD (Afrikaans and Dutch), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

Temporal constructions in Afrikaans are ambiguous with respect to aspectual meaning. The past tense construction with het ge-, for instance, can be interpreted as progressive, perfective or anterior. In the same vein, the unmarked present tense construction can be interpreted as a construction with a progressive or a perfective meaning. This aspectual ambiguity of the Afrikaans verbal system has a significant effect on the way in which Afrikaans grammar is described or understood. The observation by native speakers, linguists, literary specialists and writers that the temporal constructions in Afrikaans are vague or ambiguous with regard to aspectual meaning has led to certain views about the expression of tense in the language. In Afrikaans literature, for example, there is a tradition to write prose primarily in the present tense, because of the perception that the past tense is not adequate to convey particular semantic nuances. Furthermore, certain speakers of Afrikaans and linguists believe that Afrikaans grammar has been simplified and just does not have aspect. However, Afrikaans possesses alternative strategies to specify aspectual meaning. The five prototypical ways of expressing aspectual meaning in Afrikaans are i) lexical constructions (such as adverbs and conjunctions); ii) constructions with affixes, iii) reduplication constructions; iv) passive constructions; and v) periphrastic constructions. Aspectual meaning in Afrikaans is an almost entirely unexplored research field. In my opinion, the literature on the expressions of aspectual meaning in Afrikaans contains two shortcomings. First, Afrikaans aspect needs to be described theoretically. Second, more research is needed concerning the specific ways in which aspectual meaning is expressed in Afrikaans. The scope of this entire research field is too large for a single study. For that reason, the present study aims to reveal the way in which periphrastic constructions are used to convey progressive meaning. As far as temporal meaning is concerned, it is possible to make a distinction between tempus meaning, which stands for deictic temporal meanings (i.e. past, present and future tense), and aspectual meaning, which stands for non-deictic temporal meanings such as duration, point of view and the internal structure of the situation. One can also distinguish between lexical and grammatical aspect. Lexical aspect has to do with the conceptual properties of a situation or, in other words, with the question whether it is static or dynamic, telic or atelic and durative. There are five situation types: states, activities, achievements, accomplishments and semelfactives. Grammatical aspect concerns the point of view from which the situation is perceived. One can make a distinction between perfective and imperfective grammatical aspect. The latter can be subdivided into imperfectives conveying habitual meaning and imperfectives conveying progressive meaning. Grammaticalisation theory is useful and a relevant tool to provide answers to the afore-mentioned research questions. First, it offers insight into the manner in which the ambiguous tempus constructions of Afrikaans came into being. Second, it can be used to show how the alternative aspectual constructions have developed and how they are currently employed in the language. For the purpose of this study, grammaticalisation is regarded as language change in which a construction loses its lexical meaning and comes to express grammatical meaning. Grammatical constructions can be used in more contexts than their lexical counterparts, as grammaticalised uses have been generalized contextually. Grammatical constructions lose the morphosyntactic properties typical of their lexical counterparts and assume grammatical properties. Grammaticalisation is a typological phenomenon and the lexical origin of a grammatical construction is often the same in different languages. Grammaticalizing constructions exhibit an increase in frequency. Afrikaans and Dutch are closely related languages and possess cognate periphrastic progressive constructions, viz. i) the aan het- / aan die- ii) VPOS te / VPOS en-; en iii) bezig- / besig- progressive constructions. To examine the use of periphrastic progressive constructions in Afrikaans from a grammaticalisation perspective, I compare the results of a study of these constructions in an Afrikaans corpus to those of previous studies of the periphrastic progressive constructions in Dutch. The respective constructions are compared on the basis of four criteria, viz. i) frequency; ii) verb collocations; iii) transitivity; and iv) combinatorial possibilities with other aspectual periphrastic constructions. The lexical origins of the various constructions are also considered. The comparison of the constructions on the basis of the afore-mentioned criteria makes it possible to demonstrate how the periphrastic progressive constructions in Afrikaans came into being and how they have developed into grammatical constructions conveying aspectual meaning and in which way the different Afrikaans periphrastic constructions express progressive meaning. / PhD (Afrikaans and Dutch), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012