Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Although most journalists and media managers will deny that they are at all biased, few of the communication messages that are daily spread by the mass communication media, are neutral. Media people transfer their own political orientation, also that of the organisation that they work for, to their reports by means of their decisions of what news they will present and how they will present it. From the recent past it has become clear that there is a link between the government of the day and how the news is presented, as perceptions that have been created of certain events, have changed over time. Journalists have certain political convictions, but even if they try to be objective in spite of these, they are often insensitive to the fact that they are used by propagandists, who themselves have a thorough knowledge of the media. Sometimes journalists are knowingly and willingly involved in such attempts, and sometimes against their will. More often they are completely ignorant of the fact that they form part of a propaganda attempt, because they do not realise that they are being manipulated. In order to distinguish between "real" news and propaganda in the form of news, it is essential to have insight into the nature and origin of propaganda, but especially into the techniques that are commonly used. Initially, the word "propaganda" had a positive meaning, but during the First World War the word increasingly obtained a negative connotation. A century later, the word itself had become almost obsolete, except in reference to the information attempts of the opposition. "Own" campaigns are referred to in eufemistic terms such as "news management" and "public diplomacy". However, phenomena of propaganda did not disappear. In fact, with the progress in technology since the end of the nineteenth century, the number of communication channels available for the transfer of messages have multiplied. This created new means of spreading propaganda, especially since the invention of the transistor and later of television. With the changes in and improvements of mass communication media, the nature and extent of propaganda techniques also changed significantly. The techniques became more sophisticated and new methods of manipulation are continuously thought up, so much so that there are currently almost no limit to the ways in which propaganda messages are conveyed. When the uses of these techniques, as they are commonly found in media reports, are studied, it is possible to identify six broad catagories of propaganda. The first category is that where the nature of the contents is obvious, in other words, where no further information is required about an issue or a person in order to recognise the technique as propaganda. The second category represents pieces of propaganda where further information is required in order to recognise the use of the technique, like when somebody tells a lie. Thirdly, there are techniques that can only be recognised after a variety of propaganda pieces have been studied and the relation between the contents have been studied, such as when politicians play for time. The fourth technique is repetition. The fifth category of techniques is based on the nature of the arguments used by the propagandist, whether these are rational or non-rational. The last category is based on the intention of the propagandist, for example whether he wants to create fear or drive a wedge between groups. Knowledge of these different techniques provide a basis according to which journalists and media managers will be able to judge news events in order to determine the propagandistic intention thereof. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hoewel die meeste joernaliste en mediabestuurders salontken dat hulle enigsins bevooroordeeld is, is min van die kommunikasïeboodskappe wat daagliks deur die massamedia uitgedra word, neutraal. Medialui druk die stempel van hul eie politieke ingesteldheid, maar ook dié van die organisasie waarvoor hulle werk, op hul berigte af deur hul besluite oor watter nuus hulle gaan aanbied en hoe hulle dit gaan aanbied. Uit die onlangse verlede is dit duidelik dat daar 'n verband is tussen die regering van die dag en hoe die nuus aangebied word, aangesien persepsies wat oor gebeure geskep is, met verloop van tyd verander het. Joernaliste het sekere politieke oortuigings, maar al probeer hulle ten spyte daarvan objektief wees, is hulle dikwels onsensitief daarvoor dat hulle deur propagandiste, wat self 'n grondige kennis van die werking van die media het, gebruik word. Soms word joernaliste met hulle medewete en goedkeuring by sulke pogings betrek, en soms teen hulle sin. Meer dikwels vorm hulle egter onbewustelik deel van 'n belangegroep se propagandapoging, omdat hulle nie besef dat hulle gemanipuleer word nie. Om in staat te wees om "regte" nuus te onderskei van propaganda in die vorm van nuus, is dit noodsaaklik om insig te hê in die aard en oorsprong van propaganda, maar veral in die tegnieke wat algemeen gebruik word. Die woord "propaganda" het aanvanklik 'n positiewe betekenis gehad, maar tydens die Eerste Wêreldoorlog het dit toenemend 'n negatiewe konnotasie gekry. In Eeu later het die woord self grootliks in onbruik verval, behalwe waar daar na die opposisie se inligtingspogings verwys is. "Eie" veldtogte word in eufemistiese terme na verwys as "nuusbestuur" en "openbare diplomasie". Ten spyte hiervan het die verskynsel van propaganda nie verdwyn nie. In teendeel, met die vooruitgang in tegnologie sedert die einde van die negentiende eeu, het die kommunikasiekanale wat vir die oordrag van die boodskap beskikbaar was, veelvuldig toegeneem. Dit het nuwe moontlikhede van propagandavoering daargestel, veral sedert die uitvinding van die transistor en later ook televisie. Met die verandering en verbetering van massakommunikasiemedia het die aard en omvang van propagandategnieke ook merkbaar verander. Die tegnieke het meer gesofistikeerd geraak en nuwe metodes van manipulasie word voortdurend bedink, sodat daar vandag feitlik geen perke is aan die maniere waarop propaganda- boodskappe uitgedra word nie. Wanneer die gebruik van dié tegnieke, soos dit algemeen in mediaberigte voorkom, bestudeer word, is dit moontlik om ses breë kategorieë van propaganda te identifiseer. Die eerste kategorie is dié waar die aard van die inhoud vanself spreek, met ander woorde, waar geen verdere inligting oor 'n saak of persoon nodig is om 'n tegniek as propaganda te eien nie. Die tweede kategorie verteenwoordig propagandastukke waar bykomende inligting nodig is om die tegniek uit te ken, soos wanneer 'n leuen vertel word. Derdens is daar tegnieke wat slegs herken kan word nadat verskeie propagandastukke bestudeer is en die inhoud daarvan met mekaar in verband gebring is, soos wanneer politici vir tyd speel. Vierdens word daar van herhaling gebruik gemaak. Die vyfde kategorie van tegnieke is gegrond is op die aard van die argumente wat die propagandis gebruik, of dit byvoorbeeld rasioneel of nie-rasioneel is. Die laaste kategorie sluit tegnieke in wat gegrond is op die bedoeling van die propagandis, of hy byvoorbeeld vrees wil inboesem of groepe teen mekaar wilopmaak. Kennis van hierdie verskillende tegnieke bied 'n grondslag waarvolgens joernaliste en mediabestuurders nuusgebeure kan beoordeel ten einde die propaganda-bedoeling daarvan te bepaal.

The word "propaganda" was coined by the Roman Catholic Church in 1622 when it established the "Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide" in an effort to promote Christianity. In that era, propaganda was viewed simply as a means of spreading the Christian faith. However, 20th century conceptualizations of propaganda depict propaganda in various fashions. For example, some scholars view propaganda as a manipulative and deceptive campaign, as a means to achieve social control, and simply as a tool used to disseminate information.This study provides a foundation for creating a more unified conceptualization of propaganda. This appears particularly important given the resurgence of interest in propaganda research and recent technological innovations that provide for more widespread dissemination of propaganda. This study analyzes 20th century definitions of propaganda via the use of the constant comparative method of analysis. Through this method, key characteristics of these definitions are discerned, thereby providing scholars with a better understanding of the nature of propaganda and enhancing future propaganda research and theory construction. / Department of Speech Communication

This thesis traces the way in which the growing political consciousness of the English nation in the thirteenth century led the king to pay more attention to public opinion, and considers the arguments he used to justify his policies, and in particular his military undertakings, before a wider public audience. The development of such political propaganda began during Henry Ill's reign. Yet he felt little need to explain his policies until this increasingly unrealistic position was exposed during 1258-65, when the barons made strenuous and successful attempts to exploit public opinion. Edward I probably learnt much from his father's experience, and during his reign took considerable care to explain how his wars were in the interests of the realm. The traditional means of communication and the arguments put across both underwent considerable development as a result. Much of the material for this study is in print. The king's arguments can be established from the writs entered on the chancery rolls, supplemented by the accounts of the chroniclers, while the outline of the barons' arguments in 1258-65 can be established from the same sources. Bishops' registers and the memoranda rolls provide further information towards the end of the century. Throughout an attempt has been made to show how the king's claims and arguments were viewed, which is not particularly easy. The main sources for public opinion, the chronicles, supplemented by political songs, reflect mainly the views of literate churchmen, and the opinions of the laity can be ascertained only indirectly. Yet the picture which emerges is of an increasingly politically conscious nation following the main political events with interest, and able to judge the merits of the king's arguments for itself.

《北洋官报》于1902 年12 月创刊发行，至1912 年5 月随清王朝的覆灭而寿终正寝。纵观清末十年《北洋官报》的刊行，可见其应新政而生，又以报道和宣传新政为第一要务。本研究旨在透过《北洋官报》来看清末北洋新政。具体而言，首先要探讨的是作为新政喉舌的《北洋宮报》的创刊背景，即清末新政与北洋独特的政治文化;同时，也要梳理这份新式官报与晚清业已存在的报纸之间的文本联系。其次要具体探讨的是北洋官报局的局务，包括《官报》的发行、书籍为主的印刷业务的开展，以及"官纸印刷"的筹划与争论等。其三是《北洋官报》对新政的展示和宣传。其四是《北洋官报》在展示新政与启蒙民众过程中对日本的借鉴与推崇。通过以上四方面的研究，本论文主要探讨了《北洋官报》及官报局在北洋新政中的作用《官报》在展示新政、启蒙民智上所形成的官方新政话语和所体现的官方与非官方之间的互动关系，以及北洋与中央之间的复杂关系等。 / 就时间的划分而言， 1906 年之前，清末新政主要集中在经济、教育、军事等诸领域的改革， 1906 年之后转为以中央与地方推行的宪政改革为主要内容。依此，本论文讨论《北洋官报》对新政的展示和宣传就以1906 年为界，分为两个峙段:新政时期和宪政时代。前者侧重于《北洋官报》中的不同部分如何展示新政;后者侧重于从《官报》中看到的清末宪政推进情况。论文正文的末章则对宪政时代作详细论析。 / 综合言之， 《北洋官报》从其创刊之际，即与晚清的变局、北洋政治文化以及清末新政息息相关。《官报》为新政产物和应新政而生的同时，又以宣扬新政与开民智为己任，塑造了呈现于《官报》上的新政话语。作为官方报纸上的新政话语，并非纯然代表官方立场表达官方意志，而是既有官方的一面，又有非官方的一面，更有官方与非官方之间互动的一面。《官报》的语境既与一个多元与过渡的时代息息相关，同样，这个多元与过渡的时代也呈现在《宮报》的各种不同文本空间之中。体现在《北洋官报》中的北洋新政，在某种程度上也预示了北洋政治左右民初政局的现象，这是多元变化和过渡形态的一个方面。 / The Beiyang Gazette (Beiyang guanbao) published its first issue in December, 1902, and stopped publication in May, 1912, following the fall of the Qing Dynasty. From an overview of its ten-year publication and circulation, it is clear that the gazette was born to serve the late Qing reform, and publicizing and reporting on the reform became its top priority. This thesis aims at studying the reform through textual and contextual analyses of the Beiyang Gazette. In details, the author first investigates the background of the gazette as the mouthpiece of the reform, to understand the unique political culture of the reform under the Beiyang authorities in the late Qing. This study also traces the textual links between the new-style Beiyang Gazette and other contemporary newspapers. Second, the thesis examines the Bureau of the Beiyang Gazette in length. Details include the distribution of the gazette, the development of its book-based printing business, the controversy of "official paper" printing, and so forth. Third, the representation ofthe reform in the Beiyang Gazette is studied through textual analysis. Fourth, Japan as an enlightening model for the Chinese reform as portrayed in the Beiyang Gazette is discussed. In sum, the thesis examines the function of the Beiyang Gazette and its bureau in the Beiyang reform, the official discourse of the reformed in the gazette and its role in demonstrating the reform and enlightening the people, the interaction between the official and the unofficial realms, and the complicated relations between the Beiyang and the central governments, and other related topics. / It is found that the year 1906 was a watershed between two stages of the Beiyang reform. Before 1906, areas of the reform were mainly economy, education, military, etc. After 1906, the main concern was constitutional implementation by the central and local authorities. Chapter 6 of the thesis focuses on the second period and demonstrates in details the advancement of constitutional implementation. / In sum, the Beiyang Gazette was under the influence of the Beiyang political culture ever since it started publication. To serve the Beiyang authorities, the gazette took priority in publicizing the reform and enlightening the people. The reform discourse, as formed by the Beiyang Gazette, contained not only official, but also unofficial factors which interacted with each other. The context of the discourse had been closely related to the backdrop of an age of multiplicity and transition which was in turn represented in different textual spaces of the gazette. The Beiyang reform embodied in the Beiyang Gazette, to a certain extent, heralded the Beiyang politics that came to affect China for some time after 1911. This vicissitude can be seen as one dimension of the phenomenon of multiple changes in a transitional era. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / 姜海龍. / Sumitted date: 2011年11月. / Sumitted date: 2011 nian11 yue. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 268-275) / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstracts in Chinese and English. / Jiang Hailong. / Chapter 第一章 --- 绪论 --- p.1 / Chapter 一 --- 选题意义 --- p.1 / Chapter 二 --- 概念界说 --- p.4 / Chapter 三 --- 学术史回顾 --- p.6 / Chapter 一 --- 关于清末民初天津史的研究 --- p.6 / Chapter 二 --- 关于晚清报纸的研究 --- p.9 / Chapter 三 --- 清末《官报》的研究 --- p.15 / Chapter 四 --- 清末新政研究 --- p.16 / Chapter 四 --- 研究思路及史料支撑 --- p. 25 / 研究思路 --- p.25 / 论文所使用的史料 --- p.27 / Chapter 五 --- 研究方法与论文结构 --- p.28 / 研究方法 --- p.28 / 论文结构 --- p.28 / 论文大致内容 --- p.28 / Chapter 第二章 --- 语境与文本: 《北洋官报》之创刊 --- p.35 / Chapter 第一节 --- 历史语境:《新政上谕》与《江楚会奏变法三折》之间 --- p.35 / 《新政上谕》的解读 --- p.35 / 《江楚会奏变法三折》的出台 --- p.38 / Chapter 第二节 --- 内陆码头式的北洋政治文化 --- p.41 / 内陆码头"北洋"政治地理版图的生成 --- p.41 / 内陆码头与北洋政治文化 --- p.45 / Chapter 第三节 --- 两种文本: 《京报》与《申报》 --- p.52 / 《京报》 :前官报形态? --- p.53 / 从《申报》到《北洋官报》 :官方的模仿和对抗? --- p.58 / Chapter 第四节 --- 《北洋官报》的创刊 --- p.65 / 《北洋官报》创办 --- p.65 / 北洋官报局的章程 --- p.67 / 晚清新式官报的起点? --- p.69 / Chapter 本章结语 --- p.70 / Chapter 第三章 --- 新政展示(1902-1906): 从文牍到新闻 --- p.71 / Chapter 第一节 --- 皇权秩序的"象征性存在" --- p.71 / Chapter 第二节 --- 文牍中的新政展示 --- p.76 / 从章奏到官文牍 --- p.76 / 文牍与新政 --- p.78 / 文牍中的袁世凯 --- p.85 / Chapter 第三节 --- 新闻中的"新政纪事" --- p.90 / 新政报道:文牍的延续 --- p.90 / 新政报道:与私家之报的共识 --- p.93 / Chapter 本章结语 --- p.98 / Chapter 第四章 --- 局:官方与非官方之间 --- p.101 / Chapter 第一节 --- 官报局:清末新政中的"局" --- p.101 / 晚清以来的"局" --- p.101 / 天津的"局" --- p.103 / 北洋官报局 --- p.111 / Chapter 第二节 --- 《官报》发行 --- p.113 / 首创《官报》派销模式 --- p.114 / 第一份邮发报纸 --- p.119 / Chapter 第三节 --- 兼营印刷出版业 --- p. 122 / 官方印刷与出版机构 --- p.122 / 官方书籍出版 --- p.126 / 官方与非官方之间 --- p.129 / Chapter 第四节 --- "官纸印刷"的争论 --- p.134 / 官纸印刷会详 --- p.134 / 咨议局对"官纸印刷"的驳议 --- p.142 / Chapter 本章结语 --- p.149 / Chapter 第五章 --- 日本因素 --- p.151 / 以日为师 --- p.151 / Chapter 第一节 --- 在印刷领域的借鉴与效仿 --- p.154 / 对《日本官报》的借鉴 --- p.154 / 印刷问答:中日官报局长的"面对面" --- p.157 / Chapter 第二节 --- 《官报》中的《日俄战纪》 --- p. 167 / 从《普法战纪》到《日俄战纪》 --- p. 167 / 从西电到西报 --- p.171 / 从新闻到新知 --- p.176 / Chapter 第三节 --- 日本新知 --- p.180 / 《官报》中的新知略述 --- p.181 / 日本新知 --- p.184 / Chapter 本章结语 --- p. 195 / Chapter 第六章 --- 宪政时代 --- p.197 / Chapter 第一节 --- 广告中的宪政 --- p.198 / Chapter 第二节 --- 文牍中的宪政--宪政编查馆 --- p.203 / Chapter 第三节 --- 文牍中的宪政--直隶地方自治 --- p.212 / Chapter 第四节 --- 新政纪闻中的"议会纪事" --- p.220 / 以选举为中心的展示 --- p.221 / 以议案为中心的展示 --- p.225 / Chapter 第五节 --- 变化 --- p.229 / 官报的变化 --- p.230 / 从部、周到议董两会 --- p.232 / Chapter 本章结语 --- p.240 / Chapter 第七章 --- 结语 --- p.242 / 新政与新政话语 --- p.242 / 官方与非官方之间 --- p.244 / 北洋与中央 --- p.249 / 附录 --- p.255 / Chapter 附录一 --- 《北洋官报序三》、《北洋官报序四》 --- p.255 / Chapter 附录二 --- 《北洋官报》所载京师风景插图 --- p.257 / Chapter 附录三 --- 《北洋官报》不同时期所登载的商务印书馆广告 --- p.264 / 参考文献 --- p.268

This diploma thesis focuses on the appropriate and effective use of film and serial adaptations of topics falling into the period of communist totalitarianism in Czechoslovakia (that is between 1948 and 1989, with emphasis on the period 1948-1969). The thesis is divided into four chapters, whereas the main part, which is didactic, is described in the third and fourth chapter. The first chapter describes the basic historical context of the communist government in Czechoslovakia between 1948 and 1989. It also shows and explains the origin of the idea of communism, the further development of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia during the First Republic, and the postwar Third Republic. This chapter was put together using found edited sources and secondary literature. The second chapter deals with individual film and serial processing of topics related to the period. It presents specific films and series which were produced in the most recent years (or the post-revolutionary period), but also materials produced during the totalitarianism before 1989. In this chapter some works are discussed in greater detail, others are presented as selected alternative options for interaction for educational purposes. The third chapter summarizes the didactic and historical potential of the discussed topic, it also...