Proteins are commonly found molecules in biological systems: our fingernails, hair, skin, blood, muscle, and eyes are all made of protein. Many diseases simply arise because a protein is not folded properly. Therefore, knowledge of protein structure is considered a prerequisite to understanding protein function and, by extension, a cornerstone for drug design and for the development of therapeutic agents. Protein crystallography is a tool that allows structural biologists to discern protein structures to the highest degree of detail possible in three dimensions. The recording of x-ray diffraction data from the protein crystal is a central part of protein crystallography. As such, an important challenge in protein crystallography research is to design x-ray detectors to accurately determine the structures of proteins. This research presents the design and evaluation of a solid-state large area at panel detector for protein crystallography based on an amorphous selenium (a-Se) x-ray sensitive photoconductor operating in avalanche mode integrated with an amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) charge storage and readout pixel. The advantages of the proposed detector over the existing imaging plate (IP) and charge coupled device (CCD) detectors are large area, high dynamic range coupled to single x-ray detection capability, fast readout, high spatial resolution, and inexpensive manufacturing process. The requirement of high dynamic range is crucial for protein crystallography since both weak and strong diffraction spots need to be imaged. The main disadvantage of a-Si:H thin film transistor (TFT) array is its high electronic noise which prohibits quantum noise limited operation for the weak diffraction spots. To overcome the problem, the x-ray to charge conversion gain of a-Se is increased by using its internal avalanche multiplication gain. Since the detector can be made approximately the same size as the diffraction pattern, it eliminates the need for image demagnification. The readout time of the detector is usually within the ms range, so it is appropriate for crystallographic application. The optimal detector parameters (such as, detector size, pixel size, thickness of a-Se layer), and operating parameters (such as, electric field across the a-Se layer) are determined based on the requirements for protein crystallography. A complete model of detective quantum efficiency (DQE) of the detector is developed to predict and optimize the performance of the detector. The performance of the detector is evaluated in terms of readout time (< 1 s), dynamic range (~10^5), and sensitivity (~ 1 x-ray photon), thus validating the detector's efficacy for protein crystallography. The design of an in-house a-Si:H TFT pixel array for integration with an avalanche a-Se layer is detailed. Results obtained using single pixel are promising and highlight the feasibility of a-Si:H pixels coupled with avalanche a-Se layer for protein crystallography application.

Nitrochemicals are widely used as explosives, biocides and drugs. In addition, 3-nitro-tyrosine and other nitrated protein residues are important markers for many cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, and malignant conditions. Because of the wide presence of the nitrocompounds as toxins, potential nitrogen/carbon sources, and metabolic intermediates, different organisms have evolved to produce enzymes that can biodegrade nitrocompounds. The structural studies of the enzymes, which catalyze the removal of nitro group from nitrochemicals, are of considerable interest for both applied and fundamental reasons. The insights into the reaction mechanism of these enzymes can be used for designing efficient biocatalysts for bioremediation and for developing antibiotics for disease resistant microbes. Nitroalkane oxidase (NAO) produced by

Data preprocessing is critical for machine learning, data mining, and pattern recognition. In particular, selecting relevant and non-redundant features in highdimensional data is important to efficiently construct models that accurately describe the data. In this work, I present SLIDER, an algorithm that weights features to reflect relevance in determining similarity between instances. Accurate weighting of features improves the similarity measure, which is useful in learning algorithms like nearest neighbor and case-based reasoning. SLIDER performs a greedy search for optimum weights in an exponentially large space of weight vectors. Exhaustive search being intractable, the algorithm reduces the search space by focusing on pivotal weights at which representative instances are equidistant to truly similar and different instances in Euclidean space. SLIDER then evaluates those weights heuristically, based on effectiveness in properly ranking pre-determined matches of a set of cases, relative to mismatches. I analytically show that by choosing feature weights that minimize the mean rank of matches relative to mismatches, the separation between the distributions of Euclidean distances for matches and mismatches is increased. This leads to a better distance metric, and consequently increases the probability of retrieving true matches from a database. I also discuss how SLIDER is used to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of case retrieval in a case-based reasoning system that automatically interprets electron density maps to determine the three-dimensional structures of proteins. Electron density patterns for regions in a protein are represented by numerical features, which are used in a distance metric to efficiently retrieve matching patterns by searching a large database. These pre-selected cases are then evaluated by more expensive methods to identify truly good matches – this strategy speeds up the retrieval of matching density regions, thereby enabling fast and accurate protein model-building. This two-phase case retrieval approach is potentially useful in many case-based reasoning systems, especially those with computationally expensive case matching and large case libraries.

Pathogenic bacteria use an arsenal of toxic protein virulence factors to cause disease in host cells. The mono-ADP-ribosyltransferase (mART) toxins are a family of exotoxins produced by pathogens which contribute to a wide range of diseases including cholera, diphtheria and whooping cough. Specifically, mART toxins act by transferring ADP-ribose from NAD+ to target proteins in host cells, altering or inhibiting target activity with deleterious downstream effects. Recently, in silico analyses have revealed two novel mARTs, Photox and Certhrax, from pathogenic organisms. Photox, from Photorhabdus luminescens was successfully expressed and purified from E. coli and was shown to target actin, specifically at Arg177. This covalent modification inhibits actin polymerization and leads to observed cytotoxicity in yeast cells. Photox has 35% identity with SpvB from Salmonella enterica, which allowed for a structural model to be built, showing the location of all characteristic mART active site components, and the binding site for potential inhibitors. Certhrax originates from Bacillus cereus G9241, implicated in a number of severe pneumonia cases. Certhrax shares 31% sequence identity with anthrax lethal factor from Bacillus anthracis; however, we demonstrated that the toxicity of Certhrax resides in the mART domain, whereas anthrax uses a metalloprotease mechanism. In vivo tests employing toxin gene expression in yeast, and receptor-mediated infection of mammalian, cells showed the extreme cytotoxicity of Certhrax (LD50 = 100 pg/mL against mouse macrophage cells), making it 60 times more toxic than its infamous counterpart, anthrax lethal factor. In vitro analysis indicated that Certhrax possesses NAD+ glycohydrolase activity, characteristic of many mART toxins, but we continue to search for the natural host protein target of this toxic enzyme. We determined the crystal structure of Certhrax to 2.2 Å, which illustrates a close structural similarity with anthrax lethal factor. Furthermore, we identified several small molecule inhibitors which show protection against Certhrax both in vitro and in vivo. We determined a 1.9 Å crystal structure of one inhibitor in complex with Certhrax. Through identification and characterization of novel mART enzymes, we seek to better understand this family of toxic enzymes to aid in the discovery and development of more potent therapeutics. / National Sciences and Engineering Research Council, Canadian Institutes of Health Research

Structural biology is a branch of science related to biochemistry, biophysics, and molecular biology that deals with the molecular structures of biological macromolecules, in particular nucleic acids and proteins. Structure-guided drug design uses three-dimensional knowledge of protein structures to design small molecules which block the action of specific proteins. When crystals of theses macromolecules and their complexes can be obtained, their crystal structures can be determined by using isomorphous differences between a native structure and a derivative structure. This allows crystallographers to determine the coordinates of a small number of heavy atoms which provide initial phases for macromolecules. The advent of synchrotron radiation allowed determination of a heavy atom substructure by use of anomalous differences using either multiple wavelengths (MAD) or a single wavelength (SAD); the latter has become the most common phasing method in crystallography and is the method used in this study. The use of SeMet has been by far the most successful method employed in SAD. However, in some cases production of SeMet proteins is not possible thus necessitating additional options, for example, xenon. Noble gases such as xenon may be used in SAD experiments by binding to various, non-specific sites. Advances in noble gas pressurization systems like the Hampton Research Xenon Chamber have greatly eased the production of noble gas derivatives, xenon itself being a prime candidate with a very strong anomalous signal when compared to lighter noble gases like krypton and argon. Investigation of the phasing properties of xenon was carried out on test proteins hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL), thermolysin, glucose isomerase, and thaumatin II. Phases were successfully determined for all four proteins including thaumatin II which did not bind xenon but was successful due to the anomalous signal from 17 native sulfurs. The three remaining proteins showed varying occupancies and numbers of sites including xenon sites in thermolysin and glucose isomerase which have not been observed previously. This document will serve as a guide for the preparation of xenon derivative crystals and provides a strategy for the collection and processing of data from xenon derivatives.

abstract: CTB-MPR649-684 is a translational fusion protein consisting of the cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) and the conserved residues 649-684 of gp41 membrane proximal region (MPR). It is a candidate vaccine component aimed at early steps of the HIV-1 infection by blocking viral mucosal transmission. Bacterially produced CTB-MPR was previously shown to induce HIV-1 transcytosis-blocking antibodies in mice and rabbits. However, the induction of high-titer MPR specific antibodies with HIV-1 transcytosis blocking ability remains a challenge as the immuno-dominance of CTB overshadows the response to MPR. X-ray crystallography was used to investigate the structure of CTB-MPR with the goal of identifying potential solutions to improve the immune response of MPR. Various CTB-MPR variants were designed using different linkers connecting the two fusion proteins. The procedures for over-expression E. coli and purification have been optimized for each of the variants of CTB-MPR. The purity and oligomeric homogeneity of the fusion protein was demonstrated by electrophoresis, size-exclusion chromatography, dynamic light scattering, and immuno-blot analysis. Crystallization conditions for macroscopic and micro/nano-crystals have been established for the different variants of the fusion protein. Diffraction patterns were collected by using both conventional and serial femto-second crystallography techniques. The two crystallography techniques showed very interesting differences in both the crystal packing and unit cell dimensions of the same CTB-MPR construct. Although information has been gathered on CTB-MPR, the intact structure of fusion protein was not solved as the MPR region showed only weak electron density or was cleaved during crystallization of macroscopic crystals. The MPR region is present in micro/nano-crystals, but due to the severe limitation of the Free Electron Laser beamtime, only a partial data set was obtained and is insufficient for structure determination. However, the work of this thesis has established methods to purify large quantities of CTB-MPR and has established procedures to grow crystals for X-ray structure analysis. This has set the foundation for future structure determination experiments as well as immunization studies. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Biochemistry 2015

abstract: Photosynthesis is the primary source of energy for most living organisms. Light harvesting complexes (LHC) play a vital role in harvesting sunlight and passing it on to the protein complexes of the electron transfer chain which create the electrochemical potential across the membrane which drives ATP synthesis. phycobilisomes (PBS) are the most important LHCs in cyanobacteria. PBS is a complex of three light harvesting proteins: phycoerythrin (PE), phycocyanin (PC) and allophycocyanin (APC). This work has been done on a newly discovered cyanobacterium called Leptolyngbya Heron Island (L.HI). This study has three important goals: 1) Sequencing, assembly and annotation of the L.HI genome - Since this is a newly discovered cyanobacterium, its genome was not previously elucidated. Illumina sequencing, a type of next generation sequencing (NGS) technology was employed to sequence the genome. Unfortunately, the natural isolate contained other contaminating and potentially symbiotic bacterial populations. A novel bioinformatics strategy for separating DNA from contaminating bacterial populations from that of L.HI was devised which involves a combination of tetranucleotide frequency, %(G+C), BLAST analysis and gene annotation. 2) Structural elucidation of phycoerythrin - Phycoerythrin is the most important protein in the PBS assembly because it is one of the few light harvesting proteins which absorbs green light. The protein was crystallized and its structure solved to a resolution of 2Å. This protein contains two chemically distinct types of chromophores: phycourobilin and phycoerythrobilin. Energy transfer calculations indicate that there is unidirectional flow of energy from phycourobilin to phycoerythrobilin. Energy transfer time constants using Forster energy transfer theory have been found to be consistent with experimental data available in literature. 3) Effect of chromatic acclimation on photosystems - Chromatic acclimation is a phenomenon in which an organism modulates the ratio of PE/PC with change in light conditions. Our investigation in case of L.HI has revealed that the PE is expressed more in green light than PC in red light. This leads to unequal harvesting of light in these two states. Therefore, photosystem II expression is increased in red-light acclimatized cells coupled with an increase in number of PBS. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Chemistry 2014

As septinas constituem uma conservada família de proteínas de ligação a nucleotídeos de guanina e formação de heterofilamentos. Em mamíferos, tais proteínas estão envolvidas em uma variedade de processos celulares tais como citocinese, exocitose e tráfego de vesículas. A SEPT4 tem sido identificada em depósitos filamentosos e inclusões citoplasmáticas em Alzheimer e doença de Parkinson, respectivamente. A SEPT4 é a única proteína em associação com proteínas aberrantes em depósitos em ambos os tipos de doenças Assim, estudos adicionais de propriedades bioquímicas estruturais e funções fisiológicas para a SEPT4 podem promover importantes insights em relação ao mecanismo das doenças neurodegenerativas citadas acima. O desenovelamento térmico do domínio GTPase do SEPT4-G revelou um intermediário que agrega rapidamente na forma de fibras tipo amilóide em condições fisiológicas. Neste estudo a análise cinética da agregação do SEPT4-G foi monitorada utilizando fluorescência extrínseca e dicroísmo circular. Com os resultados e análises realizados durante este trabalho de mestrado foi possível compreender com mais detalhes a cinética de formação de agregados tipo amilóide do domínio SEPT4-G. Este trabalho também descreve a cristalização, coleta de dados, resolução e refinamento do modelo cristalográfico para a enzima Glutationa-S-Transferase de Xylella fastidiosa. Tal enzima está associada à patogenicidade da bactéria X. fastidiosa, responsável por várias doenças em plantas economicamente importantes, incluindo a Clorose Variegada dos Citros (CVC) ou Amarelinho. Algumas análises também foram realizadas após a obtenção do modelo cristalográfico demonstrando as diferenças estruturais entre GSTs bacterianas. / The septins are a conserved family of guanine nucleotides-binding and hetero-filament forming. proteins. In mammals they are involved in a variety of cellular processes, such as cytokinesis, exocytosis, and vesicle trafficking. SEPT4 has been reported to accumulate in tau-based filamentous deposits and cytoplasmic inclusions in Alzheimers and Parkinsons diseases respectively. Sept4 is unique in its association with the aberrant protein depositions in both types of diseases. Further studies on the biochemical, structural properties and physiological functions of Sept4 may therefore provide important insights into the common mechanism underlying diverse neurodegenerative disorders. Thermal unfolding of the GTPase domain of SEPT4 (SEPT4-G) revealed an unfolding intermediary which rapidly aggregates into amyloid-like fibers under physiological conditions. In this study, the kinetic analysis of aggregation of SEPT4-G was monitored using extrinsic fluorescence and circular dichroism spectroscopy. The aggregates have the ability to bind specific dyes such as Thioflavin-T (ThT), suggesting that they are amyloid in nature. Fibrils formation was monitored by the increase in ThT emission and electron microscopy as a function of temperature, pH, metal ions and protein concentration. Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) form a group of multifunctional isoenzymes that catalyze the glutathione-dependent conjugation and reduction reactions involved in the cellular detoxification of xenobiotic and endobiotic compounds. GST from Xylella fastidiosa (XfGST) was crystallized by the vapour-diffusion method and its crystallography structure was solved for molecular replacement and refined. Afterwards, sequential and structural analyses were carried out for XfGST and others GSTs.

A fosforribosilpirofosfato sintase de cana-de-açúcar [sPRS] (EC: 2.7.6.1) é uma enzima de central importância em muitas vias metabólicas envolvida na produção do 5-fosforribosil-1-pirofostato [PRPP] a partir da ribose-5-fosfato [R5F]. O gene da sPRS, seqüenciado como parte do projeto SUCEST, codifica para uma proteína com 328 aminoácidos e massa molecular 36,6 KDa. Essa proteína, após expressa heterologamente em Escherichia coli e purificada, foi cristalizada e submetida a experimentos de difração de raios X. A partir dos métodos cristalográficos e da modelagem por homologia pôde-se construir um modelo tridimensional. Cada subunidade da unidade biológica homohexamérica da sPRS correlaciona-se simetricamente com as demais através de um eixo de ordem 2 perpendicular a outro de ordem 3, formando uma simetria pontual 32. Experimentos de atividade enzimática para a sPRS indicam independência da sua atividade catalítica ao íon fosfato. Através do estudo comparativo entre a sPRS e sua homóloga fosforribosilpirofosfato sintetase de Bacillus subtillis [bPRS] (fosfato dependente) pudemos identificar similaridades estruturais na região do sítio catalítico e significativas diferenças no sítio alostérico. Os resultados revelam que essas diferenças estruturais na região do sítio alostérico são consistentes com a diferença funcional observada, sendo um importante passo rumo a compreensão da correlação estrutura-atividade para a sPRS fosfato independente. / The sugarcane phosphoribosylpyrophosphate synthase [sPRS] (EC:2.7.6.1) is an enzyme of central importance in severa1 pathways in all cells and produce the 5-phosporybosyl-1-pyrophosphate [PRPP] from the ribose-5-phosphate [R5F]. The gene of the sPRS was sequenced as part of the SUCEST project, encodes to 328 aminoacid protein with a molecular weight of 36,6 KDa. After being expressed in Escherichia coli and purified, the sPRS enzyme was crystallized and diffraction experiments were undertaken. From crystallographic methods and molecular modeling the tri-dimensional model was built. Each subunit of the sPRS homo-hexameric biological unit is symmetrically connected to the others through a 2-fold axis perpendicular to another 3-fold axis forming a 32 point symmetry. The sPRS enzyme activity assay indicates its independence of the presence of the phosphate ion. Through the comparative studies between the sPRS and the homologue from Bacillus subtillis phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate synthetase [bPRS] (phosphate dependent) we were able to identify structural similarities on the catalytic site and insightful differences on the allosteric site. These results show that structural differences in the allosteric site are consistent with functional difference observed and are an important step toward structure-activity comprehension for sPRS phosphate independent.

O atual crescimento do número de estruturas tridimensionais de proteínas está produzindo um banco de dados de estruturas que é muito útil como ponto de partida para o desenvolvimento de novas moléculas relevantes do ponto de vista médico tais como drogas e vacinas. Neste trabalho, parte do projeto de desenvolvimento de novas drogas contra a doença do sono foi feita baseada nos estudos cristalográficos de ligação de compostos e de modelagem molecular de duas enzimas glicolíticas presentes no glicossomo de T. brucei. Como o alvo para novas drogas e o ciclo de glicólise, o qual também é presente nos seres humanos, o novo ligante deve ser seletivo. Frutose-1,6-bisfosfato aldolase (ALDO) é uma das proteínas alvo para o desenho racional de drogas. A análise estrutural e estudos cristalográficos da ALDO de T. brucei foram feitos, através do uso de proteína produzida em grandes quantidades por via recombinante. Vários possíveis sítios de seletividade foram encontrados em ALDO de T. brucei quando comparada as três seqüências das isoenzimas humana, tendo como base a estrutura tridimensional da isoenzima ALDO A. O braço flexível da região C-terminal é um forte alvo para compostos seletivos devido a não-conservação das seqüências. Cristais foram crescidos e padrões de difração de raios-X foram obtidos até 3.0&#197, mas ainda os cristais são pequenos e mostram-se sensíveis a radiação. Triosefosato isomerase (TIM) é outra ptoteína alvo analisada neste trabalho. A estrutura da TIM de T. brucei é conhecida a alta resolução. Cristais de proteína expressa em bactérias foram obtidos após extensivos experimentos. Foi identificado que usar proteína recentemente preparada é essencial para obter cristais que apresentem boa qualidade de difração. Depois de obtidos cristais de proteína expressa em grades quantidades, foram feitos experimentos de difusão de novos inibidores, coleta de dados de difração e análises das estruturas dos possíveis complexos. A conhecida estrutura em volta flexível da TIM fecha quando se liga o substrato ou um inibidor análogo ao substrato no sítio ativo. Desenho racional de drogas tem sido seguido usando como padrão a conformação fechada da estrutura em volta. No entanto, com a obtenção de um novo complexo, no qual a estrutura em volta adota a conformação aberta foi feita uma busca de novos compostos em bancos de dados, que não fossem derivados de fosfatos e fosfoantos, através do programa DOCK. Com este procedimento são propostos novos compostos guia os quais serão utilizados no ciclo do desenho racional de drogas. A estrutura da triosefosfato isomerase de Bacillus stearothermophilus que apresenta estabilidade térmica em complexo com o inibidor competitivo 2PG foi determinada por cristalografia de raios-X à resolução de 2.8&#197. A estrutura foi resolvida por substituição molecular usando o programa XPLOR. Promediação da densidade eletrônica de ordem dois e nivelamento do solvente foram aplicados para melhorar a qualidade do mapa. Ambos os sítios ativos estavam ocupados pelo inibidor e a estrutura emvolta flexível adota a conformação fechada em ambas as subunidades. O fator cristalográfico R é de 17,6% com boa geometria. Bacillus stearothermophillus é considerado um organismo de estabilidade térmica moderada. Encontram-se disponíveis cinco estruturas de triosefosfato isomerase de organismos mesofílicos. A estrutura obtida neste trabalho é a primeira TIM reportada que apresenta estabilidade térmica. Vários artigos têm listados fatores de estabilidade térmica, os quais foram analisados em todas as estruturas de TIM disponíveis. Neste trabalho foi conduzida uma comparação entre a estrutura termofílica e as mesofílicas disponíveis, da qual se concluiu que a interação hidrofóbica na formação do dímero, e o alto número de prolinas são os mais importantes fatores que contribuem para a estabilidade térmica da TIM de B.stearothermophilus. Também concluiu-se que a razão Arg/(arg+Lys) é elevada em TIM de B. stearothermophilus mais devido ao baixo número de lisinas do que a um alto número de argininas. Analisou-se as argininas na TIM de B. stearothermophilus como também as interações das argininas e lisinas em todas as outras estruturas de TIM e não foi possível relacionar o valor aumentado da razão Arg/(arg+Lys) com a estabilidade térmica, fator este indicado anteriormente como importante para a estabilidade térmica / The current growth in the number of known 3-dimensional proteins structures is producing a database of structures that is very useful as starting point for the development of new medically relevant molecules such as drugs and vaccines. In this work part of the project of developing new drugs against the sleeping sickness has been done based on crystallographic, ligand-binding and molecular modeling studies of two glycolytic glycosomal enzymes from T. brucei. As the target for new drugs is the glycolysis pathway, which is present also in the human being, the new ligand must be selective. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase (ALDO) is one of the target protein for the rational drug design. The structural analysis and crystallographic studies of ALDO from T. brucei have been done, from overexpressed protein. Several possible sites for selective inhibitor were found in T. brucei ALDO when compared with the three human isoenzyme sequences, based on the human ALDO A structure. The flexible C-terminal arm is a promising target for selective compounds, due to the non-conserved sequence. Crystals were grown, and X-ray diffraction was obtained up to 3.0&#197, but still the crystals are small and show radiation damage. Triosephosphate isomerase (TIM) is the other target protein analyzed in this work. The structure of TIM from T. brucei is already known at high resolution. Crystals from overexpressed protein were obtained after extensive experiments. It was identified that the use of fresh protein is essential to grow good diffracting crystals. After obtaining crystals from overexpressed protein, it has been done soaking of new inhibitors, diffraction data collection and analysis of the structures of the possible complexes. The well known flexible loop in TIM closes upon the binding of either the substrate or an inhibitor analogue to the substrate in the active site. Rational drug design has been followed based on the \"closed\" conformation of the flexible loop. Nevertheless, with a new complex structure, in which the flexible loop adopts the \"open\" conformation, it has been done a search for new compounds in the database, non-derived from phosphate and phosphonate, through the program DOCK. Based on this procedure it was proposed new lead compounds which will be used on the rational drug design cycle. The structure of the thermostable triosephosphate isomerase from Bacillus stearothermophilus in complex with the competitive inhibitor 2PG was determined by X-ray crystallography to a resolution of 2.8&#197. The structure was solved by molecular replacement using XPLOR. Two fold averaging and solvent flattening were applied to improve the quality of the map. Both of the active sites were occupied by the inhibitor and the flexible loop adopts the \"close\" conformation in both subunits. The crystallographic R-factor is 17.6% with good geometry. Bacillus stearothermophilus is considered a moderate thermophile organism. There are already five triosephosphate isomerase structures available from mesophilic organisms. The structure reported here is the first thermostable TIM reported. It has been conducted in this work a comparison between the thermophilic and the mesophilic protein structures available. Several reports had listed thermostable factors, which have been analyzed in all TIM structures available, from which it has been concluded that the hydrophobic interaction upon the dimmer formation and the higher number of proline residues are the most important factors that contribute to the thermostability of B. stearothermophilus TIM. Also it has been concluded that the ratio Arg/(Arg+Lys) is increased in B. stearothermophilus TIM more due to lower number of lysine instead of a higher number of arginine residues. Arginines have been analyze in B. s,tearothermophillis TIM as well as the interactions of arginines and lysines in all other TIM structures and it has not been possible to relate the increased ratio Arg/(Arg+Lys) with thermo stability, which was previously reported as important in thermostability