The appearance-reality distinction refers to the understanding that objects can have misleading appearances that contradict reality. Traditionally, studies investigating children's ability to make this distinction have used a verbal-based task that requires children to answer two questions regarding the appearance and reality of a target object whose appearance has been altered. In general, these studies have found that children are not successful in this task until 4–5 years of age. The purpose of the current study was to investigate three different hypotheses regarding why 3-year-olds fail the traditional verbal-based task in order to determine whether their poor performance truly represents an inability to distinguish appearance from reality. In Experiment 1, the hypothesis that 3-year-olds fail the traditional task simply because they are unfamiliar with the property-distorting devices typically used to alter the appearances of target objects, rather than an inability to distinguish appearance from reality, was examined. Experiments 1 and 2 also examined the hypothesis that 3-year-olds' failure in this task may be due to an inability to assign conflicting, dual representations to a single object. Finally, the role of the language used in making the appearance-reality distinction also was examined in both experiments. In this case, the hypothesis that 3-year-olds may be able to distinguish appearances from reality in an action-based, but not verbal-based task, was evaluated. In Experiment 1, all of this was done using a property-distorting device typically used in traditional appearance-reality studies, whereas a completely new method for altering the appearances of objects was used in Experiment 2. No supporting evidence for the familiarity or dual representation hypotheses was found in either experiment, however, children in both experiments performed better on an action-based task than on two verbal-based tasks. Children went from answering the traditional appearance-reality questions on the basis of misleading perceptual information to overriding this misleading information in an action-based task. Together, these results provide evidence that 3-year-olds have some competence in distinguishing appearances from reality that is masked by the language demands of the traditional verbal-based task.

The effects of onset interaural time differences (ITD) on lateralization and detection of binaural broadband click trains with alternating and non-alternating ITDs were examined under earphones. Three ITDs were employed: 0 us, or $\pm$ 500 us (right-leading and left-leading). Within each train, ITDs were the same (all-left, all-right, and centered) or alternated between two of the three values. The interclick interval was 2 milliseconds and the train duration was 250 milliseconds. Lateralization has investigated with a broadband acoustic pointer with variable delay. Listeners' pointer adjustments were essentially dominated by onset ITD. Detection thresholds were obtained with two broadband continuous maskers, left-leading and diotic. MLDs of nearly 12 dB were seen for the right-leading non-alternating probe when the masker was left leading. For the alternating ITD probes, thresholds improved when one or both ITDs in the probe differed from that of the masker. Threshold improvement was independent of the onset ITD. Similar results were obtained with the diotic masker, with the magnitude of the MLD being somewhat less. To rule out the possibility of the onset being masked by the noise masker at threshold, MLDs were obtained for trains with an exponentially decaying envelope with the onset 20 dB above the trailing portion of the trains. Detection thresholds obtained in a duration discrimination task revealed MLDs of smaller magnitude, but even with the onset enhanced, no effect of onset ITD was seen. These results showed that while onsets strongly influenced lateralization of the relatively long duration signals used in these experiments, MLDs were determined by the ongoing interaural differences. Subjects' performance in lateralization showed some inter-subject variability and variability across signals. Three out of four subjects also lateralized more strongly to the left than to the right. When lateralization was determined as a function of signal sensation level (SL), the effect of onset ITD became weaker or disappeared at low SLs. These results are generally consistent with the statistical decision theory based hypothesis of Houtgast and Plomp (1968) and suggested that while onset cues dominated lateral position, detection depended on the time-varying steady-state cues in the signals.

Two studies examined whether motivation influences the utilization of accessible trait constructs in person perception. Previous research shows that perceivers readily rely on both chronically and temporarily accessible trait constructs in social information processing. It has been proposed that this process is automatic in that it does not require many processing resources, that it occurs unintentionally, and that it runs autonomously to completion. The present studies were designed to examine the generality of these accessibility effects in person perception. The first study focused on chronically accessible constructs, and the second on temporarily accessible constructs. Outcome dependency should motivate the use of relatively complex information processing strategies, and so moderate the relatively automatic reliance on chronically and temporarily accessible constructs in person perception. Alternatively, to the extent that the relatively automatic reliance on chronically and temporarily accessible constructs is immune to motivation because it is immune to intent, outcome dependency should not influence whether or not perceivers utilize either kind of accessible trait constructs in social information processing. Both of these possibilities were examined. The results did not support the prediction that outcome dependency would moderate effects of either chronically or temporarily accessible trait constructs on person perception.

This study explores the use of single session hypnosis in the treatment of tobacco cigarette smoking cessation. A volunteer subject pool of 75 subjects was divided into three groups. One group received a single session relaxation hypnosis method with positive, future-oriented suggestions. The second group received Herbert Spiegel's single session hypnosis method (Spiegel, 1978). The third group was a modified waiting list control group. One week post-treatment results show cessation rates of 40% for relaxation hypnosis, 22% for the Spiegel method, and 5% for the no treatment control group. These rates declined at one month to 26%, 15% and 0%, respectively. Cessation rates reduced further at three months and remained the same at six months; relaxation hypnosis 15%; Spiegel method 11%; and control at 0%. Pearson Chi-Square Analysis showed the difference between groups to be significant at one week and at one month. At three months, the treatment effect was no longer evident and the groups were not significantly different. The secondary focus of this study was to compare the response distributions of post-treatment abstainers to those of continuing smokers on pre-treatment questionnaires. Significant differences indicate that abstainers had higher scores on five Multi-Dimensional Personality Questionnaire scales (Tellegen, 1982). Three scales (Absorption, Social Potency and Positive Affectivity) were significant at all follow-up periods. Two others (Well-Being and Well-Being II) were significant at one month and at one week and one month, respectively. Abstainers versus smokers were also compared on the Hypnotic Induction Profile (Spiegel, 1973). Induction scores were not significant but Eye-Roll Sign scores were significant. Abstainers versus smokers were also compared using demographics, smoking history, stages of change, and processes of change (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983, 1992). None of these variables were significant when comparing abstainers and smokers on pre-treatment questionnaires. The implications of these findings are discussed.

The question of what makes great art has intrigued us for nearly as long as the art itself has cast its peculiar spell over our minds and souls. Only recently have we begun to understand something of the way in which the human psyche works, thanks to the work of Dr. Freud and those who came after him. According to Carl Jung, consciousness is a relatively recent part of human evolution. We are still evolving into conscious beings, so that each individual's progress is a microcosm of the whole of humankind. Shakespeare and other great artists tap into the collective unconscious, the place where all our archetypes are stored, waiting to be brought to light and integrated into our conscious mind. His work is so powerful because it is a reinactment of the inner drama that all of us experience on an unconscious level, in the process of individuation. The problem plays present an unusually fertile field for Jungian tillage. Like a face glimpsed in a crowd and then lost, these plays seem to hint at truths that cannot quite be grasped. Viewed through Jung's lens, the puzzles fall into place with remarkable clarity, each revolving around a specific critical axis that allows us to see the form and structure that elude us in other readings. My argument is that, from a psychological view, Jung furnishes us with what is, to date, the best map of Shakespeare's work in these plays. Shakespeare, on the other hand, as the universal poet, proves the validity of Jung's theories by furnishing material that yields to analysis by Jung's methods. This work is meant to champion Jung, not Shakespeare, who needs no champions. I hope to bring the work of two giants together in an effort to add something to our common understanding of both.

The experiments reported here investigated how lexical information is used during word and sentence processing. Predictions of the Feature Dimension Proposal, according to which information in lexical entries in the mental lexicon is represented as features, were tested. Experiments 1-4 tested predictions made by a Vocabulary Type Proposal, which says that classes of words like closed class or open class words should be processed with the same ease as other words in their class and that context manipulations should not influence their processing, against predictions of a Significant Semantics Proposal, according to which ease of lexical processing is influenced by the amount of semantic content in the word's lexical entry. Experiments 1 and 2 replicated Taft's (1990) finding that cannot-stand-alone words lead to longer lexical decision reaction times than do can-stand-alone words, suggesting that the Vocabulary Type Proposal is insufficient. Experiments 3 and 4 showed that the results demonstrated in Experiments 1 and 2 did not occur when target words were placed in semantically neutral sentence contexts, supporting the Feature Dimension Proposal over the Significant Semantics Proposal. In Experiments 5, 6, and 7, results from lexical decision and naming tasks revealed a difference in priming within the closed class and open class vocabularies and also suggested that size of priming contexts influences stability of closed-class priming. In Experiment 8, using a cross-modal lexical decision task, Shillcock and Bard's (1991) finding of facilitated lexical decision responses to related open class targets presented at the offset of an open class/closed class homophone only in a context supporting the open class version of the homophone was replicated and extended. A processing advantage for closed class lexical decision targets existed if the lexical decision target was related to the closed class version of the homophone and the homophone was presented in a context supporting its closed class sense. This advantage was similar to, although smaller in magnitude than, the effect for open class target words. Implications about the nature of the human language processing system are discussed.

For many individuals, their religious identity has played a very important role in the formation of their sense of self and identity. However, very little research has been conducted that examines what type of role religiosity may play in the formation of one's identity and sense of self. The purpose of this study is to examine the specific influences, and the degree of influence religiosity has on the commitment domain of identity. In this study, four measures of religiosity, and two measures of identity were combined into one survey, and then distributed to 65 participants. The results of the religiosity measures were compared with the scores form the identity measures. From there, the data was evaluated to identify any relationships between religiosity and identity commitment. Based on the results produced by this study, existential well-being and quest religious orientation yielded the highest correlations to identity commitment. In addition, existential well-being was related to identity diffusion. However, other dimensions of religiosity bore no significant relationships with identity.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Chicago, 1986. / "June, 1986." "Thesis No. T29951." Macroreproduction from microfilm. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 390-399).

<p>The aim of this project is to examine the relationships between two approaches to the measurement of life history strategies. The traditional method, termed here the biodemographic approach, measures developmental characteristics like birthweight, gestation length, inter-birth intervals, pubertal timing, and sexual debut. The alternative method under exploration, termed here the psychological approach, measures a suite of cognitive and behavioral traits such as altruism, sociosexual orientation, personality, mutualism, familial relationships, and religiosity. Although both approaches are supported by a large body of literature, they remain relatively segregated. This study draws inspiration from both views, integrating measures that assess developmental milestones, including birthweight, prematurity, pubertal timing, and onset of sexual behavior, as well as psychological life history measures such as the Mini-K and a personality inventory. Drawing on previous theoretical work on the fundamental dimensions of environmental risk, these measures are tested in conjunction with several scales assessing the stability of early environmental conditions, including both &ldquo;event-based&rdquo; measures that are defined with an external referent, and measures of internal schemata, or the predicted psychological sequelae of early events. The data are tested in a three-part sequence, beginning with the measurement models under investigation, proceeding to an exploratory analysis of the causal network, and finishing with a cross-validation of the structural model on a new sample. The findings point to exciting new directions for future researchers who seek to integrate the two perspectives. </p>

<p> The purpose of the study is to evaluate if the effectiveness of a check-in, checkout (CICO) intervention varies based on the function maintaining students' target behaviors as determined by functional analyses prior to the implementation of the intervention. Participants in the study consisted of 6 children enrolled in general education Kindergarten classes across 6 teachers in the Southeastern United States. Upon completion of a functional analysis, participants were determined to fit into functional groups (i.e., combined attention and escape, attention, and escape), then a modified between groups design with a component of a multiple-baseline across participants design was completed. Overall, the current study found that the CICO intervention increased desired behavior as measured by points earned on the daily behavior report card ratings across baseline to intervention phases. All functional groups displayed an increase in average points earned from baseline phase across intervention phases. The results of the current study have implications within the educational systems for selecting interventions within the response to intervention framework, utilizing functional analysis for the CICO intervention, and acceptability of evidence based interventions. Limitations and recommendations for future research are presented.</p>