This thesis concerns the ability of pupils with severe learning difficulties (SLD) to develop both the skills and an understanding of counting. To date, research in this area has been limited, one strong reason being the difficulties the researcher encounters in this field. For example, there is no single defining criteria of severe learning difficulties, the population is small and heterogeneous, and the nature of the children's learning difficulties provide a series of challenges to the collection of data first hand. The implications of these factors for the design of research are introduced in chapter one, together with a brief over-view of different approaches to understanding the nature of SLD. In chapter two, a review of the literature on how typically developing preschool children learn to count is presented. For this, the work of Gelman and her colleagues is taken as a starting place. Her five principles of counting and the distinction she draws between conceptual and procedural understanding form the basis of the discussion. Within this framework, different views of the order in which conceptual and procedural understanding occur, are considered. These include Gelman's view that children are guided in acquiring the procedures by an implicit understanding of the principles of counting as well as the opposing view that the child has first to acquire the procedures for counting, before they are able to deduce the principles. From this analysis it is suggested that neither extreme position is viable. Instead, it is proposed that the process of acquisition should be viewed as interactive with the acquisition of procedures leading to understanding which in turn leads to refinements in performance. Little research has taken place in the field of counting with pupils with SLD. In chapter three, a review of the existing literature considers studies which investigate overall performance levels, those which make comparisons between pupils with SLD and other children with a similar mental age, and studies which describe attempts to improve performance through intervention. Although the performance studies reveal a variation of ability with overlap between pupils with severe and moderate learning difficulties they do suggest a probable ceiling on the attainments children and young people can reach. What predicts these levels of performance, however, is unclear. The comparison studies provide contradictory evidence concerning the equivalence of preschool children and those with SLD and the review of intervention studies reveal that improvements in performance are possible but are uninformative with respect to the processes which underlie learning. Overall the review revealed that the research with children with SLD has been limited, both in the questions which it addresses and in its theoretical orientation. The primary aim of this thesis is to investigate the extent of pupils attainments in counting, both in relation to performance and understanding. An essential part of this objective is to first establish whether children with SLD are able to understand the principles of counting and second to investigate the temporal order to this. A third aspect is to explore selected factors which might contribute to differences between pupils' attainment. A series of three studies are undertaken which examine the acquisition of procedures and conceptual understanding in counting in both children with severe learning difficulties and preschoolers. These are preceded by an exploratory study which sets out to establish a satisfactory way of studying counting in this particular group. Once this has been achieved the first proper study addresses the question of which comes first for children with SLD, the acquisition of counting skills or understanding. It reveals that some children are clearly able to demonstrate understanding and that this is followed (but was not solely dependent on) successful performance on counting tasks. The second study then compares the attainments of a group of pupils with SLD and a group of typically developing preschoolers. Performance on both counting and error detection tasks is found to be poor in these two groups but no overall differences are found. The study does, however, reveal some qualitative differences in the responses of the two groups, with children with SLD using fewer count words and using a smaller repertoire of responses to a cardinal question than the preschoolers. The final study explores some of the reasons for these qualitative differences between the groups by comparing various of aspects of the number environment in which children with SLD and nursery children learn to count. The study has three parts and is carried out with children from two SLD schools matched on two different measures with children from two nurseries. Firstly, questionnaires are used to examine staff attitudes towards counting activities. Whilst staff in both settings are found to have a variety of different general aims, they share similar views of the importance of counting and acquiring the number word sequence. More precisely, they don't see either activity as very important. The second part of this study is based on observations of children's experiences of number words in both nursery and SLD settings across curriculum areas/activities. Observations reveal considerable variation in the practices of the four settings with none providing all the characteristics identified as important by those investigating mother-child interactions. Conversely, no setting provides all the characteristics identified by those favouring mechanistic approaches. Additionally, no setting provides evidence of staff individualising childrens' experiences. The final part of the study into children's counting performance reveals (unsurprisingly) that overall the best predictor is mental age. In chapter nine the data from all three studies is pooled for further analysis, revealing that children can be seen as falling within four groups of attainment, the largest being those who are in the process of acquiring the procedures and with an equal number falling in the two extreme groups of non-counters and error detectors. The remaining small group of children are described as being transitional, able to count proficiently but not able to demonstrate understanding. Throughout the studies all children who demonstrate understanding are proficient counters. Whilst no difference is found between typically developing and SLD children in the distribution of children across the four groups, the pattern of acquiring the procedures appears to be different with the SLD group acquiring competence in one:one correspondance first, followed by stable order (and then cardinality) and the preschoolers adhering to stable order and then one:one correspondance. Chapter ten explores the theoretical and practical implications. The process of acquisition of skills and understanding is characterised as a gradual one with children's thinking developing from being based on a series of rules which operate largely independently in restricted contexts, to being based on an understanding of the principles enabling the generation of strategies for problem solving. It is suggested that a likely mechanism for change is the child's awareness of a mismatch between the expectation and the outcome of a particular action or sequences of action but that further investigation is needed focusing on particular transition times.

The term 'developmental delay' has been introduced in Taiwan Early Childhood Special Education to refer to young children with difficulties in learning and development. The purpose of this research is to describe kindergarten teachers' perceptions of this term, the prevalence and characteristics of children with developmental delay in kindergartens in Taiwan, and the relationships between teacher identifications, screening tests and children's classroom behaviours. A three stage study was conducted. Stage One investigated teachers' understandings of 'developmental delay'. The methods employed included individual interviews with 52 teachers and a characteristics rating scale completed by the teachers. Stage Two consisted of a prevalence survey and individual interviews with teachers about current and future special provision for children with developmental delay and teachers' experiences in coping with such children. Prevalence was established using teachers' nominations of children. Stage Three concentrated on the classroom experiences of the children and the relationships between teacher identifications, screening tests and classroom behaviours. Fifty children (half regarded by teachers as having developmental delay and the other half not) in eleven classes took part in this stage. The Chinese version of the Denver Developmental Screening Test (DDST) was adopted for the screening tests. The main findings suggest that the teachers tended to perceive developmental delay from within-child perspectives, with preference for the normative and developmental models. Of the kindergarten children, 9.2% were regarded by teachers as having developmental delay, with most having multiple domains of delay. Current special provision for these children was limited, but more provision from inside or outside the kindergarten was seen to be needed. There were distinctive differences in classroom behaviour patterns between children regarded as having developmental delay and other children in class. Where there was a certain degree of mismatch between the teacher and test identifications (using DDST results) these discrepancies can be accounted for in terms of the classroom behaviour patterns. The findings, both theoretical and practical, and the research implications of this thesis are discussed.

This thesis starts by addressing some complex issues concerning the classification of children called 'Clumsy'. The focus then turns more specifically to manual competence in Clumsy children, which is investigated using both a descriptive and an experimental approach. In both cases performance on two different groups of manual tasks is examined: drawing tasks and object manipulation tasks. Within the descriptive approach, both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses are undertaken. Firstly, overall differences in the performance between Clumsy children and age-matched controls are described. More detailed examinations are then made of different aspects of movement quality using observation checklists. The main findings are that Clumsy children perform more poorly than controls on simple manual tasks. Their performance is worse, not only in terms of motor control, but also in relation to spatial characteristics and more global factors. It was also found that the movement characteristics of Clumsy children vary at different ages and that, although there are general improvements with age, the motor aspects of performance seem resistant to change. Within the experimental approach the role of vision in performance is studied in two different ways. Using a correlational approach, one study suggests that although Clumsy children have visual perceptual deficits, it is not clear how these are related to their motor difficulties. Using a different methodology, another study involves the manipulation of visual information to produce different perceptual conditions. The main finding is that Clumsy children (and particularly the younger ones) are affected more by a lack of visual information than controls. It is suggested that the role of vision in Clumsy children may differ at different ages but that generally it seems that they depend heavily on visual information and that they are poor at making sense of kinaesthetic input.

The focus of this thesis is on the possible effects of cognitive deficit on the acquisition of driving skills in young people with spina bifida and hydrocephalus (SBH). The specific question addressed is whether success on the standard Driving Test can be predicted from performance on a battery of psychometric tests. A review of the findings from studies on cognitive deficit and driving and the cognitive functioning of groups with SBH identified the areas of visual-perceptual skill, attention and memory as being of possible relevance in the assessment of suitability for driving. The second part of the thesis describes the development of a battery of tests to assess not only these skills, but also visual-motor ability, which, from results during the early stages was also thought to be of value in the assessment of skills for driving. During development of the battery, the perceptual-cognitive tests chosen were completed by two series of SBH adults and by four matched groups of varying ability (able-bodied, SBH, SB only and cerebral palsy). As the work progressed, it became clear that the prediction of driving success from cognitive tests was limited. However, the results of these studies and a small-scale study of 14 learner drivers during early tuition, highlighted efficient visual disembedding and memory skills as important for learning to drive. Of additional importance was the consistent finding that the reasons why a person did not become a driver had many causes, not necessarily related to cognitive functioning. In particular, financial circumstances, the availability of adapted cars and driving instructor techniques were often overiding factors in determining whether a person reached Driving Test standard or not. No definitive answer, therefore, can be given to the specific question addressed in this thesis - can driving ability be predicted? It is clearly indicated, however, that although sound perceptual-cognitive skills are a prerequisite for learning to drive, they are not alone sufficient to predict driving success.

Children use a range of addition strategies during the primary years and progress from using mainly counting based strategies to retrieval of known number facts. This thesis looks at the cognitive developmental and social factors which influence children's strategy choices for addition sums during these early years. Siegler and Jenkins's (1989) model for the distribution of strategies based on the speed and accuracy of a strategy for a particular sum, and Baroody and Ginsburg's (1986) schema based theory of a search for relationships and cognitive economy are challenged. The studies in this thesis reveal a large proportion of children whose conceptualisation of these abstract concepts seems to be at variance with that of adults. Contrasting theories about the conceptual basis for the transition from counting all to using min are investigated through a comparison of performance on commutativity tasks and strategy choices for sums. The studies trace development over the primary years and show an informal knowledge of commutativity in very young children. Curriculum interest in number patterns prompted an investigation into possible links between retrieval of number facts for sums and retrieval for number patterns. Performance on the patterns varied, and though a relationship was found more research in this area of curriculum development is needed before any conclusions can be reached. When questioned, most of the children aspired to using retrieval, though analysis of performance showed that strategy choice was governed by type of sum, age and rated ability.

This study was an investigation into the concept of psychological androgyny; its measurement, its antecedents, correlates and outcomes. The primary focus was on the hypothesised links between both androgyny and opposite sex role typing with non-stereotypical choice and achievement in higher education. The study considered whether there might be similar factors that influenced language choices by boys and science choices by girls. Data on family background, personality, past educational experience and attainment and ability was collected from a sample of 158 undergraduates at a college of London university. This was collected via questionnaires, the androgyny questionnaire being adapted for the purpose. A small sub group took some ability tests. A survey of past examination results at both '0' and 'A' level was undertaken to examine the trend over time with regard to stereotypical and non-stereotypical choice and achievement. This established that girls were as capable of achieving in science subjects as boys, and likewise, boys were capable of achieving in languages. The problem was one of school subjects being part of a male or female stereotype, and the non take up of choice early on in the educational system, and consequently there being progressively fewer entries at all stages. The main statistical analyses of the data found there were gender differences in both the antecedents of and the outcomes of being androgynous. Significant factors were the occupation of the father, the influence of the mother on upbringing, and whether she was in paid employment or not, and perceived control over outcomes. For this sample, school type also had an effect. No link was found between androgyny and achievement. There were no significant gender differences in achievement. Associations were found between masculinity and position in family and achievement. Grammar school education followed by comprehensive schooling at sixth form level predicted well for this sample. There were no links found between androgyny and nonstereotypical choice, although masculinity and femininity independently had small effects. There were some similarities between male non-stereotypical choice and female non-stereotypical choice, these being a non conforming personality, support from the school, and delay in occupational decision making. Parental roles need further investigation.

In the years since the genocide, the Government of Rwanda has contributed significant financial resources to the re-establishment and development of its public higher education sector. This investment has largely been justified in terms of the contribution of university graduates to the country’s vision of becoming a service-based knowledge economy, capable of reducing its reliance on foreign aid and technical assistance. Implicit in this vision for the future is an assumption that a university education will help students to improve in their ability to think critically about problems and to use evidence when making decisions. This study empirically investigated this assumption by administering a version of the Collegiate Learning Assessment – a performance-task-based test of critical thinking, adapted for use in Rwanda – to a random sample of 220 students enrolled at three of Rwanda’s most prestigious public institutions. Assessment results were supplemented with in-depth case studies at two of the institutions involved in the study. Results of the study suggest that Rwandan students are not significantly improving in their critical thinking ability during their time at university. Critical thinking ability in Rwanda seems to be largely influenced by the academic experiences provided within university Faculties, as the use of innovative classroom practices appears to have a positive impact on the cultivation of critical thinking skills. However, results indicate that such practices cannot be assumed, as faculty motivation and understanding of pedagogical innovations can significantly affect their effective implementation. The international community has largely focused its higher education reform efforts on improvements in institutional efficiency, but the results of this study indicate that student learning outcomes cannot be ignored. Without similar support for initiatives that seek to improve pedagogy, regional revitalisation efforts are unlikely to have a substantial effect on development objectives.

The mental health and wellbeing of our children and young people is at the forefront of the educational agenda, with academic achievement and life prospects severely compromised for children with conduct disorder (CD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Effective treatments for this client group include those based on cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). However, a subgroup of children with CD, those who also present with high-level callous-unemotional (CU) traits, have been identified, with the relationship between CU traits and treatment effectiveness as yet unclear. This research adopted a mixed methods design to evaluate the effectiveness of a group CBT-based intervention for adolescents (aged 11-13 years) in a mainstream secondary school in Hertfordshire. The intervention, developed from Kazdin‟s Problem Solving Skills Training, Lochman and Larson‟s Anger Coping Programme and Shure‟s I Can Problem Solve, ran for 6 weeks with two groups of students (n=15). Data collected from participants at two time points: pre-intervention (T1) and 8 weeks later post-intervention (T2), measured self-reported behaviour, CU traits, empathy, peer relationships and social goals. Further, data relating to behaviour was collected using the school‟s database (SIMS), and teacher report measure. Qualitative data from student interviews, (T1) and focus groups (T2), explored students‟ perceptions of the intervention. A research journal and post-session evaluations with teaching staff provided further qualitative data related to development and implementation of the intervention. Findings revealed a significant reduction in clinical severity for CD, with no significant change across all other measures. Qualitative data revealed the intervention had been positively received by students. This data set contributed to the development of best practice; informing understanding of practicalities in implementing interventions in mainstream schools, from the perspective of the students, the school and the service provider.

Computer games are common activities in the nineties and have become a new cultural influence in children's lives. Games labeled 'educational software' are said to be beneficial to the development of children's thinking and learning because they provide opportunity to practise problem-solving skills. However, there is little evidence about what really happens in this respect when children play an educational computer game. Prior to this study, there have been no adequate means for assessing reasoning and problem-solving skills in the context of computer games. The study aims to develop ways to measure and analyze gains in children's cognitive skills acquired through computer game activities. To develop a method of assessing children's reasoning, the game chosen was an inferential problem-solving game called 'Find the Flamingo', one of the 'Safari Search' series (O'Brien, 1985). Different versions of the 'Find the Flamingo' game - computer, board and card games - were given with if-then sentences as rules of the game. 282 primary school children took part in this research. Four studies were carried out. Study 1 compared the effects of specific media on children's performance in the game. No difference was found between the use of computers and traditional game tools such as a board or playing cards. Study 2 explored developmental trends and individual differences in problem solving with the game. Differences in the curves of performance groups were shown to be stable across games. The production and use of inferences in the process of playing the game were also examined. Children used the inferences with different levels of accuracy according to the conceptual difficulties in the information. Study 3 explored the impact of guidedplanning and timed pausing for reflection on inferential problem solving with a simplified version of the computer game. Children benefited from guided-planning in the training period. Study 4 examined the development of operative logic of inclusions and exclusions across three inferential tasks and the Flamingo game. The 6- year-old children understood the inclusion rule of multiple possibilities, but they were not able to coordinate the knowledge of inclusion and exclusion to represent more complicated structures. The significant association between the performances of the tasks and of the game even after the control for age allowed the prediction of the Flamingo game performance. Applications of the findings could lead to the design of computer programs that concentrate on specific aspects of problem-solving skills such as planning, and the development of problem-related concepts and operations.

It is known that the presence of information related to, but not necessary for the completion of a speeded experimental task can affect performance. Previous studies involving such 'contextual' effects with information in verbal and nonverbal form have produced mixed results which have been attributed to differing underlying processing mechanisms. The present work examines the extent to which some possible mechanisms could, in common, account for within- and crossmodality contextual effects. 'Priming' information relating to typographic case was presented over time intervals varying up to 480 msec before, and up to 480 msec after, a target to which a speeded category-decision was indicated by a left- or right-hand key-press. Within-attribute' case-priming was effected using a letter string printed either in upper- or lower-case (e.g., `dghej', or 'YFLRB') paired with a similar target for case-decision. Within-attribute name-priming upon name-decision was similarly achieved using the case-denoting words `upper' and 'lower'. 'Cross-attribute' priming was possible through name information priming case-decisions (e.g., `upper-YFLRB'), or, case information priming name-decisions (e.g., 'YFLRB-upper'). The combined effects of case- and name-priming upon case-decision were also investigated using case-denoting words printed in either one or other of the two typographic cases (e.g., `upper-yflrb', or `UPPER-yflrb'). Relatively short decision latencies accompanied by relatively low error rates occurred when targets were preceded by congruent within-attribute primes. Incongruent priming led to slower responses with higher error rates. Similar effects were obtained with name-priming of case-decisions although, in comparison to within-attribute priming, these occurred after longer prime pre-exposures. Case-priming effects upon name-decisions were obtained for simultaneous as well as pre-exposed primes, however, congruent as well as incongruent case-priming led to relatively slow decision latencies and higher error rates. Combined congruent case and name information speeded case-decisions in comparison to congruent case information alone. However the converse did not occur; increase in case-decision latency with incongruent case and name information combined was no greater than with incongruent case information alone. It has been argued that the results are consistent with models which propose that input is initially subject to encoding where 'activation' may spread automatically among interconnected verbal or nonverbal representations. In particular, this could partly account for speeded responses obtained with congruent primes. Relatively shorter decision latencies can also be attributed to subsequent decision processes and the generation of responses. The results also suggest that relatively longer latencies could arise from competing incompatible responses having to be suppressed. It has been further argued that relative speed of processing different stimulus attributes and the form of experimental task can be major determinants in the detection of contextual effects.