A radiação ultravioleta (UV) pode ser absorvida por diferentes moléculas celulares, incluindo o DNA no qual provoca distorções estruturais. As lesões mais comuns induzidas pela radiação UV são o ciclobutano de pirimidina (CPD) e o fotoproduto (6-4)-pirimidina-pirimidona [(6-4)PPs]. Estas lesões podem ser reparadas pela fotorreativação, caracterizada por ter uma única proteína (fotoliase) que remove lesões empregando luz visível (320-500 nm) como fonte de energia. Foram identificados dois tipos de fotoliases que diferem por sua especificidade ao substrato: CPD-fotoliase e (6-4)-fotoliase. Um outro mecanismo de reparo é o reparo por excisão de nucleotídeos (NER), um mecanismo que envolve múltiplos passos e proteínas. Enquanto os efeitos genotóxicos da UVC e UVB já estão relativamente esclarecidos e bem aceitos, ainda existem controvérsias sobre a genotoxicidade da radiação UVA, devido ao fato de ser fracamente absorvida pelo DNA. Alguns autores acreditam que os seus principais efeitos são gerados de forma indireta pela produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio enquanto outros acreditam que a UVA pode gerar danos ao DNA de forma direta, provocando a formação de dímeros de pirimidina. O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar os efeitos genotóxicos da radiação UVA em fibroblastos humanos deficientes e proficientes em NER utilizando adenovírus recombinantes contendo uma ou outra fotoliase para verificar se as lesões CPD e (6-4)PP são geradas pela UVA e se elas teriam alguma importância nas respostas verificadas após irradiação. Foi verificado que as células deficientes no gene XPA são mais sensíveis à radiação UVA quando comparadas às células selvagens. Por meio da detecção imunológica, confirmamos a geração das lesões CPD, (6-4)PP e Dewar, fotoisômero da lesão (6-4)PP, após irradiação com UVA no genoma de células humanas. Empregando vetores adenovirais para transdução de fotoliase específica para lesões tipo CPD ou (6-4)PP, confirmamos que de fato essas lesões são formadas em células humanas deficientes em reparo de DNA após irradiação com UVA. Além disso, esses vírus permitiram verificar a relevância biológica dessas lesões na indução de morte celular em células XP-A irradiadas. De fato, os dados indicam que para doses baixas de radiação UVA essas lesões desempenham um importante papel na indução de morte. Não podemos descartar, porém, que lesões indiretas (provavelmente geradas por estresse oxidativo) também tenham papel na indução de morte pela radiação UVA, o que parece ser mais importante a doses médias e altas dessa radiação. / Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is absorbed by different cellular molecules, including DNA in which induces structural distortions. The most common lesions induced by UV radiation are the cyclobutane pyrimidine (CPD) and the photoproduct (6-4)-pyrimidine-pyrimidone [(6-4)PP]. These lesions can be repaired by the photoreactivation, characterized by a single protein (photolyase) that removes lesions using visible light (320-500 nm) as energy source. Two types of photolyases had been identified that differ by their substrate specificity: CPD-photolyase and (6-4)-photolyase. Another repair mechanism is the nucleotide excision repair (NER), a mechanism that involves multiple steps and proteins. While the genotoxic effects of UVB and UVC are already relatively well-understood and accepted, there is still controversy about the genotoxicity of UVA radiation, due to its low absorption by DNA. Some authors believe that the major effects are generated indirectly by the production of reactive oxygen species, while others believe that UVA can cause damage to DNA directly, inducing the formation of pyrimidine dimers. The aim of this study was to assess the genotoxic effects of UVA radiation in human fibroblasts deficient and proficient in NER, using recombinant adenovirus expressing the photolyases to verify if CPDs and (6-4)PPs are generated by UVA and whether they had any importance in the responses observed after irradiation. It was found that cells deficient in the XPA gene are more sensitive to UV radiation compared to wild type cells. By immunological detection, we confirm the generation of CPD, (6-4)PP and Dewar, photoisomer of the (6-4)PP lesion, in the genome of human cells after irradiation with UVA. Using adenoviral vectors for the transduction of photolyases specific for CPD or (6-4)PP lesions, we confirm that in fact these lesions are generated in human cells deficient in DNA repair after irradiation with UVA. Moreover, these viruses allowed us to verify the biological relevance of these lesions in the induction of cell death in irradiated XP-A cells. In fact, our data indicates that for low doses of UVA radiation, these lesions play important roles in the induction of death. We cannot rule out, however, that indirect lesions (probably caused by oxidative stress) could also have a role in the induction of death by UVA radiation, which seems to be more important in intermediate and high doses of this radiation.

A radiação ultravioleta (UV) pode ser absorvida por diferentes moléculas celulares, incluindo o DNA no qual provoca distorções estruturais. As lesões mais comuns induzidas pela radiação UV são o ciclobutano de pirimidina (CPD) e o fotoproduto (6-4)-pirimidina-pirimidona [(6-4)PPs]. Estas lesões podem ser reparadas pela fotorreativação, caracterizada por ter uma única proteína (fotoliase) que remove lesões empregando luz visível (320-500 nm) como fonte de energia. Foram identificados dois tipos de fotoliases que diferem por sua especificidade ao substrato: CPD-fotoliase e (6-4)-fotoliase. Um outro mecanismo de reparo é o reparo por excisão de nucleotídeos (NER), um mecanismo que envolve múltiplos passos e proteínas. Enquanto os efeitos genotóxicos da UVC e UVB já estão relativamente esclarecidos e bem aceitos, ainda existem controvérsias sobre a genotoxicidade da radiação UVA, devido ao fato de ser fracamente absorvida pelo DNA. Alguns autores acreditam que os seus principais efeitos são gerados de forma indireta pela produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio enquanto outros acreditam que a UVA pode gerar danos ao DNA de forma direta, provocando a formação de dímeros de pirimidina. O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar os efeitos genotóxicos da radiação UVA em fibroblastos humanos deficientes e proficientes em NER utilizando adenovírus recombinantes contendo uma ou outra fotoliase para verificar se as lesões CPD e (6-4)PP são geradas pela UVA e se elas teriam alguma importância nas respostas verificadas após irradiação. Foi verificado que as células deficientes no gene XPA são mais sensíveis à radiação UVA quando comparadas às células selvagens. Por meio da detecção imunológica, confirmamos a geração das lesões CPD, (6-4)PP e Dewar, fotoisômero da lesão (6-4)PP, após irradiação com UVA no genoma de células humanas. Empregando vetores adenovirais para transdução de fotoliase específica para lesões tipo CPD ou (6-4)PP, confirmamos que de fato essas lesões são formadas em células humanas deficientes em reparo de DNA após irradiação com UVA. Além disso, esses vírus permitiram verificar a relevância biológica dessas lesões na indução de morte celular em células XP-A irradiadas. De fato, os dados indicam que para doses baixas de radiação UVA essas lesões desempenham um importante papel na indução de morte. Não podemos descartar, porém, que lesões indiretas (provavelmente geradas por estresse oxidativo) também tenham papel na indução de morte pela radiação UVA, o que parece ser mais importante a doses médias e altas dessa radiação. / Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is absorbed by different cellular molecules, including DNA in which induces structural distortions. The most common lesions induced by UV radiation are the cyclobutane pyrimidine (CPD) and the photoproduct (6-4)-pyrimidine-pyrimidone [(6-4)PP]. These lesions can be repaired by the photoreactivation, characterized by a single protein (photolyase) that removes lesions using visible light (320-500 nm) as energy source. Two types of photolyases had been identified that differ by their substrate specificity: CPD-photolyase and (6-4)-photolyase. Another repair mechanism is the nucleotide excision repair (NER), a mechanism that involves multiple steps and proteins. While the genotoxic effects of UVB and UVC are already relatively well-understood and accepted, there is still controversy about the genotoxicity of UVA radiation, due to its low absorption by DNA. Some authors believe that the major effects are generated indirectly by the production of reactive oxygen species, while others believe that UVA can cause damage to DNA directly, inducing the formation of pyrimidine dimers. The aim of this study was to assess the genotoxic effects of UVA radiation in human fibroblasts deficient and proficient in NER, using recombinant adenovirus expressing the photolyases to verify if CPDs and (6-4)PPs are generated by UVA and whether they had any importance in the responses observed after irradiation. It was found that cells deficient in the XPA gene are more sensitive to UV radiation compared to wild type cells. By immunological detection, we confirm the generation of CPD, (6-4)PP and Dewar, photoisomer of the (6-4)PP lesion, in the genome of human cells after irradiation with UVA. Using adenoviral vectors for the transduction of photolyases specific for CPD or (6-4)PP lesions, we confirm that in fact these lesions are generated in human cells deficient in DNA repair after irradiation with UVA. Moreover, these viruses allowed us to verify the biological relevance of these lesions in the induction of cell death in irradiated XP-A cells. In fact, our data indicates that for low doses of UVA radiation, these lesions play important roles in the induction of death. We cannot rule out, however, that indirect lesions (probably caused by oxidative stress) could also have a role in the induction of death by UVA radiation, which seems to be more important in intermediate and high doses of this radiation.

Ultraviolet light is damaging but fish have evolved protective mechanisms, which allows them to live in shallow water reefs, high in UV radiation. This thesis details my investigation into the physiological ecology of solar ultraviolet (UV) absorbing compounds, known as mycosporine-like amino acids found in the external epithelial mucus, and examines the supporting role potentially played by a UV-induced DNA repair mechanism in coral reef fish of the Indo-Pacific. Using reverse phase chromatography and UV spectrophotometry, I examined whether the distribution of MAA compounds across different areas of the body is correlated with differential UV exposure. Comparisons were made between the MAA content and the absorbance spectra of mucus from the dorsal, ventral, caudal and head body surface areas in five species of Scaridae (Chlorurus sordidus, Scarus schlegeli, S. niger, S. psittacus and S. globiceps) from Ningaloo Reef, Coral Bay, Western Australia. All fish analysed had at least five MAAs present, and results showed that fish had increased UV absorbance in mucus over the dorsal area, which receives the brunt of UV radiation. Little UV protection was found in mucus from the ventral area, which receives the lower level of UV radiation mostly via reflection of the sand and reef surfaces. Furthermore, UV absorbance per mg dry mucus versus standard fish length showed that there is a positive relationship in C. sordidus with increasing size. I examined whether there is a difference in the quantity of UV screening compounds found in the mucus of fish along a longitudinal geographical gradient from inshore reefs (Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef) to the outer edge reefs to oceanic reefs (Osprey Reef). MAA absorbance increased with longitudinal distance from the mainland landmass of Australia to more oligotrophic outer reefs, where UV attenuation is reduced and the ocean is more transparent to UV wavelength. I determined that fish living on inshore, more turbid reefs where UV attenuation in shallow waters is high have lower levels of MAA protection than fish from clear oceanic reefs. Furthermore, there seems to be a direct relationship between light attenuation and exposure with the quantity of protective sunscreening found in the mucus of reef fish. It is know that UV irradiation decreases with water depth and that mucus from fish with deep habitats absorbs less UV than that of fish from shallow habitats. It is unknown however, whether this UV protection is variable within the same individuals and if so, how fast changes 11 occur. To test this, I relocated 9 ambon damselfish from a deep reef (18 m) to a shallow reef (1.5 m) to expose fish to increased levels of UV and relocated another 7 fish from a shallow to a deep reef to expose fish to decreased levels of UV. One week after relocation, all fish were returned to their original reef site to determine whether MAA levels would return to their initial levels. Fish relocated to a shallower depth were recovered and had a 60% (SD+/-2%) increase in mucus UV absorbance. Conversely, the fish relocated to a deeper depth were recovered and had a 41% (SD+/-1%) decrease mucus UV absorbance. No difference was found between UV absorbance of relocated and original fish at both depth. Six days after fish were returned to their original reef, mucus UV absorbance levels had returned to 67% +/- 4% of the original level. These results show that mucus UV absorbance is variable in individual ambon damselfish and that the sunscreen protection typical for a certain depth is reached in relocated fish within just a few days of relocation. The rate of MAA loss is higher than the accumulation of MAAs suggesting that diet is not the sole determining factor involved in the sequestration of MAAs to mucus. The cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus performs a mutualistic service by removing ectoparasites such as gnathiid isopods as well other dead infected tissue from its clients. Cleaner fish however are also known to feed on client mucus. The benefits of eating mucus until recently were unclear. In this study, we analysed the mucus of several cleaner fish clients to determine whether mucus feeding has a nutritional advantage over gnathiids and whether cleaner fish obtain their own MAA protection through this dietary mucus ingestion. Results show that host fish that are infected with gnathiids of poor nutritional value, in contrast to those that harbour gnathiids with higher nutritional value, continuously exude mucus that has both high nutritional value and high MAA content. These findings support the conclusion that in a competitive market for cleaners some host fish are forced to offer more than parasites to cleaners. Ultraviolet light that is not filtered by UV absorbing compounds such as MAA may still lead to DNA damage such as the formation of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) or 6-4 photoproducts (6-4 PPs). However, coral reef fish have alternative mechanisms to overcome UV induced damage via the photolyase DNA repair mechanisms. We experimentally demonstrated for the first time that a coral reef fish species, the moon wrasse Thalassoma lunare has the ability to repair DNA damage via photoreactivation. Fish both with and without MAA protection were irradiated with UVB wavelength to induce DNA lesions. Half of the experimental fish were then exposed to photoreactivating wavelength to induce DNA repair 12 while the other fish were blocked from the repair mechanisms. Fish which had undergone DNA repair had the lowest number of lesions regardless of mucus MAA protection. When fish were blocked from photoreactivation wavelengths MAA sunscreens clearly served a photoprotective role. The amount of damage was greatest in fish which both lacked MAAs and which were also blocked from photoreactivating wavelengths. Thus for the overall UV protection of fish both the MAA sunscreens as well as the DNA repair system play a significant role in counteracting UV damage. Ultraviolet protection by MAA sunscreens is ubiquitous in marine fish. To date the same 5 MAA compounds (palythine (λmax 320 nm), asterina (λmax 330 nm), palythinol (λmax 332 nm), usujirene (λmax 357 nm) and palythene (λmax 360nm) have been identified in the mucus of several different species of reef fish from Australia. Here we report the first evidence of the presence of additional UV absorbing compounds found in the mucus of fish from Indonesia. Using UV spectroscopy the mucus of four species of fish was compared between both geographical regions. The presence of an additional peak between 294-296 nm wavelengths suggests the presence of gadusol and/or deoxygadusol, which are photoprotective compounds, thought to be the precursors of MAAs. Thus, UV protecting compounds in the mucus of fish may not be as conserved between different regions as previously assumed. Our knowledge concerning the effect of UV radiation has advanced considerably in the past decade and my research findings contribute to the better understanding of protective mechanisms of marine fish. The correlations I have found between UV attenuation/exposure, depth, and longitude of sampled individuals lead me to believe that mucus UV absorbing MAA compounds are a highly efficient adaptive defence.