Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, nach einer irreversiblen Schädigung des Sehnervs zu zeigen, ob retinale Ganglienzellen zu Umstrukturierungsprozessen an ihren Axonen ohne neuroprotektive Unterstützung fähig sind. Das besondere Interesse galt der licht- und elektronenmikroskopischen Analyse. Verwendet wurden 37 adulte Albinoratten (WISTAR-Prob). Zuerst wurde der Nervus opticus für 30 s 5 mm hinter dem Bulbus oculi gequetscht. Ein zweiter invasiver Eingriff, der zur retrograden Markierung von aberranten Neubildungen an den Axonen der Nervenfaserschicht durchgeführt wurde, fand zu den postoperativen Überlebenszeiten (ÜLZ) von drei und zehn Tagen, zwei, drei,vier, acht und zwölf Wochen sowie nach sechs und zwölf Monaten statt. Für die retrograde Markierung wurde das biotinylisierte Dextranamin (BDA) eingesetzt, das unter Verwendung des Chromogens Diaminobenzidin visualisiert wurde.Die folgenden Befunde konnten auf lichtmikroskopischer Ebene ermittelt werden: · axonale Schwellungen, · dornenförmige Fortsätze, · intraretinale Axonsprosse mit Wachstumskegeln, · zwei Formen von intraretinalen Axonkollateralen und · aberrante axonale Trajektorien in Form von Schleifenaxonen. Basierend auf dem lichtmikroskopischen Befund wurden ausgewählte Bereiche der Netzhaut ultrastrukturell untersucht.Axonale Schwellungen konnten hinsichtlich ihrer Gestalt in spindelförmig, ballonierend und breitbasig polypös unterschieden werden. Dornenförmige Fortsätze an den Nervenfasern stellen vermutlich ein morphologisches Erscheinungsbild zur Herstellung eines funktionellen Gleichgewichts dar. Die intraretinalen Axonsprosse mit ihren birnenförmigen Wachstumskegeln konnten erstmalig elektronenmikroskopisch in einer adulten Rattennetzhaut nach einer Schädigung des Nervus opticus beschrieben werden. Die nach den ÜLZ von zehn Tagen, zwei, drei und vier Wochen dokumentierten aberranten Fortsätze orientierten sich hauptsächlich vom Discus nervi optici zur Netzhautperipherie. Zu allen ÜLZ besaßen sie eine rundliche oder ovoide Gestalt und wiesen eine Größe von 5 bis 10 µm auf. Sie gingen aus einem Hauptfaszikel in der Nervenfaserschicht hervor und existierten in enger Korrelation zu benachbarten Axonen und Blutgefäßen. Die Definition des Wachstumskegels wurde durch den ultrastrukturellen Befund der Akkumulation von Mitochondrien und wachstumskegeltypischen Vesikeln verifiziert. Die Axonsprosse mit ihren Wachstumskegeln stellen das morphologische Substrat von temporären Reorganisationen der RGC nach einer Unterbrechung ihrer axonalen Efferenz dar. Es waren zwei Formen von intraretinalen Axonkollateralen sichtbar. Bei der ersten Form handelt es sich um eine axonale Kollateralisierung nach einem dreiwöchigen Versuch, die unmittelbar hinter dem Axonhügel einer Typ-III-RGC abzweigte. Diese Form der Kollateralisierung könnte vermutlich im Zusammenhang mit regenerativen Leistungen in der Netzhaut stehen, die unter dem Begriff axon-like processes definiert wurden. Die zweite Kollateralisierungsform zwei Wochen nach der Läsion bildete sich in einem orthogonalen Winkel von einer Nervenfaser in einem Axonfaszikel und entsendete mehrere Kollateralzweige. Acht Wochen nach einer Nervus opticus-Axotomie konnte eine Axonkollaterale dokumentiert werden, die sich in einem fortgeschrittenen Degenerationsprozess befand. Die beschriebene intraretinale Axonkollaterale konnte erstmalig bei der adulten Albinoratte beschrieben werden. Zwei und drei Wochen post lesionem konnten in zwei Versuchen Nervenfasern dokumentiert werden, die durch eine auffallende Schleifenbildung gekennzeichnet waren. Resümierend konnte auf licht- und elektronenmikroskopischer Ebene nachgewiesen werden,dass geschädigte retinale Ganglienzellen in der adulten Ratte zu axonalem Wachstum ohne neuroprotektive und neuropermissive Unterstützung fähig sind. Die beobachteten regenerativen Leistungen sind vermutlich auf das Wirken von Neurotrophinen in der Retina oder im Sehnerv selbst zurückzuführen. / The present light and electron microscopic study was undertaken to determine whether axotomized retinal ganglion cells are able to reestablish intraretinal axons without experimental neuroprotective support. 37 adult albino rats (WISTAR-Prob) were used. In a first step, the optic nerve was intraorbitally exposed and crushed for 30 s at about 5 mm from the ocular bulb. A second experiment was conducted in order to stain newly formed intraretinal axonal elements after postlesion times of either three and ten days, two, three, four, eight, and twelve weeks, or six and twelve month. Retrograde labelling was achieved using biotinylated dextran amine (BDA),followed by visualization with diaminobenzidine as chromogen. The following structures were detected light microscopically: · axonal swellings, · spine-like processes, · intraretinal axonal sprouts showing growth cones, · two types of axonal collaterals, and · aberrant axonal fibers forming so-called looping axons. On the basis of light microscopy selected areas of the retina were examined electron microscopically. Axonal swellings were typified by their shape as spindle-shaped, ballon-shaped or broad-basic polypous. Also spine-like processes, which might serve the reestablishment of a functional balance within the retinal network, were detected. Intraretinal axonal sprouts, showing pear-shaped growth cones at their endings, could be demonstrated for the first time on the ultrastructural level. Aberrant processes, most of them orientated from the optic disc to the retinal periphery, were found at survival times of ten days as well as after two, three and four weeks. At all survival stages investigated the growth cones showed a plump or ovoid morphology and ranged in size between 5 to 10 µm. Usually, they were found to originate from nerve fiber fascicles located in close neigbourhood to the axons but also to blood vessels of the inner retina. The light microscopical typification of growth cones was confirmed at the ultrastructural level, particularly as accumulated mitochondria and growth cone-specific vesicles were detected. Probably, axonal sprouts and growth cones represent a temporal attempt of retinal ganglion cells to regenerate after transection of the optic nerve. Two axon collaterals were detected in the inner retina. In the first case, three weeks postlesion, an axon was found to branch immediately behind the axon hillhock of a type III ganglion cell. This kind of collateralization is indicative of a regenerative response as it has been previously reported by other authors who found so-called axon-like processes. In a second case, two weeks postlesion, an axon appeared to bifurcate orthogonally from a fiber fascicle sending off several collaterals on its way. Furthermore, a degenerating axon collateral was seen eight weeks after optic nerve lesion. The types of axon collaterals presented in this study were described for the first time in the albino rat. So-called looping axons typically characterized by their circular course were found in the inner retina two and three weeks postlesion. In conclusion, the light and electron microscopical results demonstrate that axotomized retinal ganglion cells of the adult rat retain the capability for axonal outgrowth without any neuroprotective and neuropermissive support. Since no experimental growth-promoting measures had been taken, it might be speculated whether the observed regenerative processes were due to intrinsic neurotrophic factors in the retina or the optic nerve themselfes.

The main objective of this thesis is to investigate the intrinsic optical signals (IOSs) with an ultra-high resolution optical coherence tomography system (UHROCT). In order to study the retinal IOSs evoked by visible light, an UHROCT and an Electroretinogram (ERG) system was combined. An animal model (chicken retina) based on its retinal avascularity and cone dominance, was selected. Imaging the chicken retina with OCT resulted in high contrast, high resolution (~3μm axial and ~5 μm lateral resolution) 2D and 3D volumetric tomograms, in which all retina layers were clearly distinguishable. Using the combined UHROCT and ERG system to image IOSs from the chicken retina exposed to visible light (7ms green flash) resulted in highly reproducible IOS recordings from all retinal layers for the first time. All inner retinal layers showed an initial increase and subsequently a decrease in the intensity of the backreflected imaging light within the first 100 ms after the onset of the stimulus. Outer segments of the photoreceptors also showed a decrease in the backreflected imaging light within 100 ms after the onset of the flash. All retinal layers showed a strong decrease in the backreflected light within 150 to 175 ms after the onset of the flash. Imaging the pupil dynamics of the chicken with a modified combined UHROCT and ERG system showed that part of the strong negative IOSs observed in all retinal layers resulted from the vignetting of the imaging beam due to the light induced pupil constriction. Thorough analysis of the pupil dynamics acquired with UHROCT showed a time dependent effect of the anesthesia agent on pupil constriction. Further experiments to investigate an anesthesia effects on retinal function showed significant changes in ERG components. Statistical analysis showed that Isoflurane anesthesia severely affects the inner retinal response. In conclusion, it was hypothesized that the fast IOSs within ~50-100 ms after the onset of the visual stimulus originated from the neuronal tissue in the retina and are related to tissue optical property changes as a result of the electrical signal propagation in the light activated retina. Longer term decreases in backreflected light are likely due to pupil changes.

The precise structure of the adult Drosophila eye results from a coordinated process of cell sorting, differentiation and selective cell death in the retinal epithelium. Mutations in the gene echinus cause supernumerary pigment cells due to insufficient cell death. This study reports the identification of echinus and the characterization of its role in Drosophila retinal development. Using a combination of deletion mapping, gene expression analysis and genomic sequencing, echinus was cloned and several alleles were sequenced. echinus encodes a ~180kDa protein containing an ubiquitin hydrolase domain at its N-terminus and a polyglutamine tract at its C-terminus. echinus is expressed in the retina during pupal development and mutants of echinus have decreased levels of apoptosis during several stages of retinal development. Defects in the cell sorting process that precedes cell death are also observed in echinus loss-of-function mutants and echinus overexpression can cause defects in ommatidial rotation and the morphology of cone cells. echinus is a positive regulator of DE-cadherin and Enabled accumulation in adherens junctions of retinal epithelial cells. Genetic interactions were observed between echinus and the genes wingless, enabled and expanded. An immunofluorescence assay in Drosophila S2 cell cultured demonstrated that Echinus localizes to intracellular vesicles that do not appear to be endocytic in nature, and the C-terminal region of Echinus was shown to be necessary for this association. A protein interaction screen using an immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry approach identified interactions between Echinus and the vesicle coat protein Clathrin, the scaffolding protein RACK1 and the casein kinase I epsilon (Dco). Co-immunoprecipitation additionally identified an interaction between Echinus and Enabled. This work has revealed echinus to be an important regulator of cell sorting and adherens junction formation in the developing retina and has identified multiple interactions between echinus and enabled, a regulator of the actin cytoskeleton.

Developmental studies on elasmobranchs are challenging due to the difficulties in obtaining sufficient numbers of animals of different age cohorts. The brown banded bamboo shark, Chiloscyllium punctatum is a good model in this regard as it is abundant and readily available in the wild, is quick to mature, is frequently housed and bred in captivity and is a relatively small species of shark. Whilst there are important factors that must be considered when comparing the retinal development of animals raised in captivity to those caught from the wild, the use of C. punctatum represents an outstanding opportunity to study the development of the elasmobranch visual system from pre-hatching embryonic to adult life stages. In this study, the developing eye and retina of C. punctatum were studied using light and electron microscopy, electroretinography (ERG) and microspectrophotometry (MSP). To provide a source of early-stage animals, and to investigate the effects of environmental factors (such as temperature) on physical development, a captive breeding program was established at the University of Queensland. Sharks sourced from this facility were supplemented with animals bred at UnderWater World, Sea World and caught from the wild. Monitoring the fecundity, embryonic development, growth and viability of captive C. punctatum showed that females lay an average of 115.3 eggs, 38 of which were viable and 21.4% of which hatched. Embryos have an average gestation of 153 days post deposition (dpd; temp: 21 - 25º C) and embryonic growth is most rapid from 99 dpd until hatching. The eye of C. punctatum develops early in embryogenesis, with visible optic vesicles bulging at 27 dpd. Recent advances in fixation and processing techniques for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) have yielded improved levels of ultrastructural detail in a variety of tissue types. Consequently, in addition to conventional chemical fixation (CF) methods, the retina of C. punctatum was also processed using microwave chemical fixation (MCF) and high pressure freezing (HPF), and the resulting ultrastructure compared. Both MCF and HPF produced superior retinal ultrastructure compared to conventional CF, evidenced by higher resolution of ultrastructural detail and fewer artefacts. MCF provided the best, consistent ultrastrucutral results. By examining the time-course of retinal cell differentiation, it was found that ganglion and Müller cells are the first to differentiate, at approximately 81 dpd. The interneurons differentiate next, beginning with the amacrine cells (81 dpd), followed by the bipolar cells (101 dpd) and horizontal cells (124 dpd). The adult retina is duplex and rod and cone photoreceptors are differentiated and synaptic connections are formed by 124 dpd. Topographic analysis of retinal neuron sub-types reveals that C. punctatum undergoes rapid changes in ganglion cell distribution during embryogenesis. High levels of apoptosis, especially around the retinal periphery, result in relatively higher cell densities in the central retina, which progressively extend nasally and temporally to form a meridional band. C. punctatum develops a horizontal streak and shows only minor changes in topography during growth. Only basal levels of apoptosis are seen post-hatching. In the adult shark, the total ganglion cell number reaches 547,881. The mean and highest retinal ganglion cell densities reach a peak around hatching (3,228 cells mm-2 and 4,983 cells mm-2, respectively). Using measurements of lens focal length and ganglion cell density, the calculated maximum spatial resolving power (assuming a hexagonal mosaic) increases from 1.47 cycles degree-1 during embryogenesis to 4.29 cycles degree-1 in adults. The addition of a high ganglion cell density area within the visual streak and an increasing spatial resolving power over post-hatching development suggest an increased prey targeting and capture ability for this species. Using ERG, it is shown that C. punctatum becomes responsive to light at 127 dpd and light sensitivity peaks around the time of hatching, with a slight decrease post-hatching. C. punctatum maintains a flicker fusion frequency (FFF; an indicator for temporal resolution) at 7 - 22 Hz through juvenile stages), which is relatively low compared to other marine predators. ERG results suggest that this species is adapted to low light vision with low temporal resolution. The early differentiation, development and functionality of the visual system in C. punctatum allows for a period of synaptic maturation and potentially the ability of embryonic predator avoidance. The retina of C. punctatum contains a rod visual pigment with a wavelength of maximum absorbance (λmax) at 500 nm and cone visual pigment with a λmax at 532 nm; the max values of these pigments do not change during development. Rod and cone outer segments differentiate at 113 days post deposition (dpd), lengthen during embryogenesis and accumulate pigment throughout life. Although the photoreceptors develop and differentiate well in advance of hatching, there is considerable variation in outer segment length and pigment density during embryogenesis, which suggests that these cells are developing up until hatching. C. punctatum does not appear to have the potential for colour vision based on the lack of two cone photoreceptor types each containing a visual pigment maximally sensitive to different parts of the visual spectrum, but appears specialised for dim-light contrast vision.

Doctor of Philosophy (Medicine) / Background: Diabetic vascular complications affect both the macro- and microvasculature. Microvascular pathology in diabetes may be mediated by biochemical factors that precipitate cellular changes at both the gene and protein levels. In the diabetic retina, vascular pathology is found mainly in microvessels, including the retinal precapillary arterioles, capillaries and venules. Macular oedema secondary to breakdown of the inner blood-retinal barrier is the most common cause of vision impairment in diabetic retinopathy. Müller cells play a critical role in the trophic support of retinal neurons and blood vessels. In chronic diabetes, Müller cells are increasingly unable to maintain their supportive functions and may themselves undergo changes that exacerbate the retinal pathology. The consequences of early diabetic changes in retinal cells are primarily considered in this thesis. Aims: This thesis aims to investigate the effect of perivascular cells (Müller cells, RPE, pericytes) on retinal endothelial cell permeability using an established in vitro model. Methods: Immunohistochemistry, cell morphology and cell growth patterns were used to characterise primary bovine retinal cells (Müller cells, RPE, pericytes and endothelial cells). An in vitro model of the blood-retinal barrier was refined by coculturing retinal endothelial cells with perivascular cells (Müller cells or pericytes) on opposite sides of a permeable Transwell filter. The integrity of the barrier formed by endothelial cells was assessed by transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) measurements. Functional characteristics of endothelial cells were compared with ultrastructural morphology to determine if different cell types have barrier-enhancing effects on endothelial cell cultures. Once the co-culture model was established, retinal endothelial cells and Müller cells were exposed to different environmental conditions (20% oxygen, normoxia; 1% oxygen, hypoxia) to examine the effect of perivascular cells on endothelial cell permeability under reduced oxygen conditions. Barrier integrity was assessed by TEER measurements and permeability was measured by passive diffusion of radiolabelled tracers from the luminal to the abluminal side of the endothelial cell barrier. A further study investigated the mechanism of laser therapy on re-establishment of retinal endothelial cell barrier integrity. Müller cells and RPE, that comprise the scar formed after laser photocoagulation, and control cells (Müller cells and pericytes, RPE cells and ECV304, an epithelial cell line) were grown in long-term culture and treated with blue-green argon laser. Lasered cells were placed underneath confluent retinal endothelial cells growing on a permeable filter, providing conditioned medium to the basal surface of endothelial cells. The effect of conditioned medium on endothelial cell permeability was determined, as above. Results: Co-cultures of retinal endothelial cells and Müller cells on opposite sides of a permeable filter showed that Müller cells can enhance the integrity of the endothelial cell barrier, most likely through soluble factors. Low basal resistances generated by endothelial cells from different retinal isolations may be the result of erratic growth characteristics (determined by ultrastructural studies) or the selection of vessel fragments without true ‘barrier characteristics’ in the isolation step. When Müller cells were co-cultured in close apposition to endothelial cells under normoxic conditions, the barrier integrity was enhanced and permeability was reduced. Under hypoxic conditions, Müller cells had a detrimental effect on the integrity of the endothelial cell barrier and permeability was increased in closely apposed cells. Conditioned medium from long-term cultured Müller cells and RPE that typically comprise the scar formed after lasering, enhanced TEER and reduced permeability of cultured endothelial cells. Conclusions: These studies confirm that bovine tissues can be used as a suitable model to investigate the role of perivascular cells on the permeability of retinal endothelial cells. The dual effect of Müller cells on the retinal endothelial cell barrier under different environmental conditions, underscores the critical role of Müller cells in regulating the blood-retinal barrier in health and disease. These studies also raise the possibility that soluble factor(s) secreted by Müller cells and RPE subsequent to laser treatment reduce the permeability of retinal vascular endothelium. Future studies to identify these factor(s) may have implications for the clinical treatment of macular oedema secondary to diseases including diabetic retinopathy.

Master of Science / In vivo many forms of glia utilise both intercellular and extracellular pathways in the form of IP3 permeable gap junctions and cytoplasmic ATP diffusion to produce calcium waves. We introduce a model of ATP and Ca2+ waves in clusters of glial cells in which both pathways are included. Through demonstrations of its capacity to replicate the results of existing theoretical models of individual pathways and to simulate experimental observations of retinal glia the validity of the model is confirmed. Characteristics of the waves resulting from the inclusion of both pathways are identified and described.

[Truncated abstract] During development of the visual system, topographic connections between the retina and the superior colliculus are established using guidance molecules. The EphA family of tyrosine kinase receptors and their ephrin-A ligands are important for establishing topography between the temporo-nasal axis of the retina and the rostro-caudal axis of the superior colliculus. After injury to the visual system via unilateral optic nerve transection, adult mammalian retinal ganglion cells fail to regenerate axons spontaneously to their main visual centre, which in rodents, is the superior colliculus. The EphA5 gradient is down-regulated from a temporalhigh to nasallow gradient to a uniform low level in the few surviving retinal ganglion cells, but ephrin-A2 is upregulated back to a significant rostrallow to caudalhigh gradient in the superior colliculus, similar to that seen during development. In this thesis, a number of experiments have been undertaken to investigate further how EphA5 and ephrin-A2 are regulated after injury and how they may play a role once regeneration has been encouraged through surgical intervention. In the first study, targeted unilateral retinal laser lesions were used to ablate either dorso-nasal or ventro-temporal quadrants of the retina. ... Surviving and regenerating retinal ganglion cells in the retina, and axons in the optic nerve, were analysed. The data suggest that metallothionein-I/II increases axonal regeneration through the optic nerve injury site but, at the dose administered, had no neuroprotective effects on retinal ganglion cells. This thesis provides further insight into the response of guidance molecules to injury, and the potential of metallothionein-I/II as a neuroregenerative factor in the adult mammalian visual system. The regulation of both EphA5 and ephrin-A2 through transsynaptic connections may be a response common to other guidance molecules. Such connectivity now needs to be studied further to understand how it may impact on various treatments designed to increase re-connectivity after other brain injuries, including stroke. The ectopic expression of ephrin-A2 at the insertion site of a peripheral nerve graft in the superior colliculus, implicate this guidance molecule in the glial scar for the first time. Therefore, to overcome inhibition by the glial scar, axons must also overcome ephrin-A2 mediated inhibition, potentially by the addition of EphA5 fusion proteins. Metallothionein-I/II?s effect of increasing axonal regeneration through the optic nerve injury site suggests that it could be used to increase the number of regenerating axons reaching their target. Such strategies to increase the absolute number of regenerated axons should enable these axons to better use the EphA5 and ephrin-A2 topographic gradients to optimize regenerative success.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2007. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 126-138).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 1997. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [123]-141).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 1999. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [106]-128).