Eukaryotic nuclear DNA is folded with histone and non-histone proteins into chromatin, a nucleoprotein structure regulated by histone post-translational modifications and substitution with histone variants. Chromatin mediates processes such as DNA damage repair, cell differentiation, gene silencing, and centromere specification. Mistaken inheritance of chromatin-mediated gene silencing, for instance, can cause both aberrant development and cancer. Gene silencing at pericentromeres and centromeres, which can be attained through obstruction of transcription as well as through recruitment of specific RNA-degrading proteins, is essential for centromere specification. However, the molecular mechanisms of these processes are not yet thoroughly understood, and therefore they will be the focus of this thesis. A structure termed heterochromatin, for which the essential hallmark is histone H3 lysine 9 methylation (H3K9me), preferentially assembles at repetitive DNA such as pericentric regions, playing roles in transcriptional silencing, recombination suppression, and chromosome segregation. The RNA interference (RNAi) machinery is required for heterochromatin assembly over DNA repeats in diverse organisms by targeting histone-modifying activities. Surprisingly, RNA splicing factors are also required for this process. A widely-held model derived from studies in fission yeast is that splicing factors provide a platform for siRNA generation independently of their splicing activity. Here, we discovered the requirement of four non-essential splicing factors for pericentric heterochromatin assembly, allowing us to more clearly address the role of splicing in heterochromatin assembly. Sequencing total cellular RNA from the strongest of these mutants, cwf14Δ, showed intron retention in mRNAs of several RNAi factors, which correspond to strong reduction in levels of a central RNAi protein, Argonaute. Moreover, introducing cDNA versions of RNAi factors significantly restores pericentric heterochromatin in splicing mutants. We also found that mutation of splicing factors affects telomeric heterochromatin, and replacement of mis-spliced factor tpz1+ with its cDNA partially rescued heterochromatin defects at telomeres in splicing mutants. Thus proper splicing of RNAi and shelterin factors contributes to heterochromatin assembly at pericentric regions and telomeres. In addition to post-translational modifications, chromatin silencing can be regulated by histone variants such as H2A.Z. The incorporation of H2A.Z into chromatin regulates chromatin structure and gene expression. The Swr1 chromatin remodeling complex deposits H2A.Z in budding yeast and mammals. Here we characterize a novel component of the fission yeast Swr1 complex, Msc1, which is a Jumonji domain protein frequently associated with histone demethylation. We found that Msc1 is required for Swr1-mediated incorporation of H2A.Z into chromatin at gene promoters. We demonstrated that H2A.Z is required for the expression of CENP-C, which in turn regulates centromere silencing and chromosome segregation. Together, these results show that chromatin silencing at pericentromeres and centromeres is mediated by splicing factors and H2A.Z, respectively, to promote proper regulation of other chromatin factors, thus ensuring faithful chromosome segregation.

A raiva é uma zoonose que afeta todos os mamíferos e causa cerca de 55.000 mortes humanas por ano, causada pelo vírus da raiva. O vírus da raiva pertence à Ordem Mononegavirales, Família Rhabdoviridae e o Gênero Lissavirus. Atualmente, o tratamento humano se baseia no uso do Protocolo de Milwaukee composto de indução do paciente ao coma e uso de massiva terapia antiviral. O protocolo, apesar de ter sido utilizado duas vezes com sucesso, inclusive em um caso brasileiro, ainda requer aprimoramentos. Neste sentido, a interferência por RNA (RNAi) é uma nova abordagem para terapia de doenças virais. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a inibição da replicação do vírus da raiva in vitro e in vivo utilizando RNAi. Para tanto, foram utilizados três siRNAs (siRNA 124, siRNA 750, siRNA B) com a fita antisenso complementar ao mRNA da nucleoproteína (N) do vírus da raiva. Para o ensaio in vitro foram utilizadas a cepa PV do vírus da raiva e as células de BHK-21 (Baby hamster kidney). As monocamadas celulares foram infectadas com a cepa PV e depois de 2 horas de incubação transfectadas com cada um dos siRNAs em combinação com Lipofectamine 2000®. Depois de 22 horas as placas teste e controle foram submetidas à imunofluorescência direta (IFD) com conjugado globulina de coelho anti-nucleocapsídeo do vírus da raiva/isotiocianato de fluoresceína (BIO-RADTM). Os resultados revelaram títulos de 5,71logTCID50/ml, 5,56logTCID50/ml e 5,65logTCID50/ml para os siRNAs 124, B e 750, respectivamente, enquanto que, para a placa controle, o título foi 6,43logTCID50/ml. Para o ensaio in vivo, foram usados camundongos albino suíços de 21 dias com peso entre 11 e 14g, infectados com a cepa PV via intracerebral. Duas horas depois da infecção foi inoculada por via intracerebral uma solução do \"pool\" dos três siRNAs com Lipofectamine 2000® . Os animais com paralisia foram sacrificados e aqueles sobreviventes foram observados até completar 30 dias de observação quando foram, então, sacrificados. O sistema nervoso central de todos os animas foi recolhido e submetido a IFD. O título viral do grupo teste foi 7.03logLD50%/ml e do grupo controle 7.13logLD50%/ml. O resultado do ensaio in vitro demonstra que os siRNAs utilizados são efetivos em inibir a replicação do vírus da raiva, com eficiências equivalentes. A utilização do \"pool\" dos três siRNA em camundongos resultou em 30% de animais sobreviventes frente a 100 DL50% do vírus PV, enquanto que a mesma dose levou a 100% de mortalidade nos animais não tratados. Pode-se atribuir a menor eficiência em inibir a replicação do vírus da raiva in vivo quando se compara com os resultados in vitro possivelmente às elevadas doses virais utilizadas. Estes resultados, ainda que indiquem a necessidade de mais estudos, permitem concluir que a RNAi é uma tecnologia promissora como antiviral contra a raiva. / Rabies is a zoonotic disease that affects all mammals and causes more than 55.000 human deaths every year, caused by rabies virus (RABV) a virus of the Mononegavirales order, Family Rhabdoviridae and the Lissavirus genus. After the onset of the symptoms, the illness has a fast progression and the patients feel intense physical suffering. Currently, human rabies treatment has been based on the Milwaukee Protocol which consists on the induction of coma and massive antiviral therapy. Despite this protocol has been successful in two cases, including a Brazilian case (Recife State), more studies on antiviral for human rabies treatment are required. RNA interference is a new antiviral approach, which gives hope to the possibility of rabies antiviral treatment. The aim of this study was to assess the decrease in the titer of rabies virus in vitro and in vivo using short-interfering RNAs. For this purpose, three siRNAs (siRNA 124, siRNA B, siRNA 750) were used with antisense strands complementary to rabies virus nucleoprotein (N) mRNA. Pasteur virus strain (PV) of rabies virus and BHK-21 cells were used, and the monolayers were transfected with each of tree RNAs with Lipofectamine-2000. After 22 hours, the siRNA-treated and the control plates were tested by direct fluorescent antibody test (DFAT) with anti-rabies virus nucleocapsid antibody conjugate with fluorescein isothiocianate. Virus titers were calculated by the Spearman-Karber method. The results revealed that all three siRNAs reduced the titer of PV strain and a more intense effect was obtained with siRNA B. The titer of the PV strain in the control plate was 6.43lg TCID50%/ml and 5.56lg TCID50%/ml in the plate treated with siRNA B, respectively. The similar result was obtained in plates treated with siRNAs 124 and 750. The title of PV strain of these plates was 5.71lg TCID50%/ml of siRNA 124 and 5.65lg TCID50%/ml of siRNA750, respectively. No cytopathic or cytotoxic effect was observed in the monolayers treated with Lipofectamine-2000®. Swiss albino mice with 21 days weighing between 11 and 14g infected with strain PV by the intracerebral route used in this in vivo essay. After two hours of infection, a pool solution of 3 siRNAs with lipofectamine was also inoculated by the intracerebral route. The animals with paralysis were euthanized and those which survived were observed until the 30th day when they were also euthanized. The central nervous system of all animals were collected and induced to IFD. The title viral test group was 7.03logLD50%/ml and the control group was 7.13logLD50%/ml. The in vitro test results indicate that siRNAS are effective in inhibiting the replication of rabies virus with similar efficiencies. The use of the pool of three siRNA in mice resulted in 30% of survivors for 100 LD50% of PV virus, while the same dose led to 100% mortality in untreated animals. A lower efficiency in inhibiting the replication of rabies virus in vivo when compared with results in vitro could be possibly due to the high viral doses used. These results, although indicative of the need for further studies, show that RNAi is a promising technology as antiviral against rabies.

A raiva é uma zoonose que afeta todos os mamíferos e causa cerca de 55.000 mortes humanas por ano, causada pelo vírus da raiva. O vírus da raiva pertence à Ordem Mononegavirales, Família Rhabdoviridae e o Gênero Lissavirus. Atualmente, o tratamento humano se baseia no uso do Protocolo de Milwaukee composto de indução do paciente ao coma e uso de massiva terapia antiviral. O protocolo, apesar de ter sido utilizado duas vezes com sucesso, inclusive em um caso brasileiro, ainda requer aprimoramentos. Neste sentido, a interferência por RNA (RNAi) é uma nova abordagem para terapia de doenças virais. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a inibição da replicação do vírus da raiva in vitro e in vivo utilizando RNAi. Para tanto, foram utilizados três siRNAs (siRNA 124, siRNA 750, siRNA B) com a fita antisenso complementar ao mRNA da nucleoproteína (N) do vírus da raiva. Para o ensaio in vitro foram utilizadas a cepa PV do vírus da raiva e as células de BHK-21 (Baby hamster kidney). As monocamadas celulares foram infectadas com a cepa PV e depois de 2 horas de incubação transfectadas com cada um dos siRNAs em combinação com Lipofectamine 2000®. Depois de 22 horas as placas teste e controle foram submetidas à imunofluorescência direta (IFD) com conjugado globulina de coelho anti-nucleocapsídeo do vírus da raiva/isotiocianato de fluoresceína (BIO-RADTM). Os resultados revelaram títulos de 5,71logTCID50/ml, 5,56logTCID50/ml e 5,65logTCID50/ml para os siRNAs 124, B e 750, respectivamente, enquanto que, para a placa controle, o título foi 6,43logTCID50/ml. Para o ensaio in vivo, foram usados camundongos albino suíços de 21 dias com peso entre 11 e 14g, infectados com a cepa PV via intracerebral. Duas horas depois da infecção foi inoculada por via intracerebral uma solução do \"pool\" dos três siRNAs com Lipofectamine 2000® . Os animais com paralisia foram sacrificados e aqueles sobreviventes foram observados até completar 30 dias de observação quando foram, então, sacrificados. O sistema nervoso central de todos os animas foi recolhido e submetido a IFD. O título viral do grupo teste foi 7.03logLD50%/ml e do grupo controle 7.13logLD50%/ml. O resultado do ensaio in vitro demonstra que os siRNAs utilizados são efetivos em inibir a replicação do vírus da raiva, com eficiências equivalentes. A utilização do \"pool\" dos três siRNA em camundongos resultou em 30% de animais sobreviventes frente a 100 DL50% do vírus PV, enquanto que a mesma dose levou a 100% de mortalidade nos animais não tratados. Pode-se atribuir a menor eficiência em inibir a replicação do vírus da raiva in vivo quando se compara com os resultados in vitro possivelmente às elevadas doses virais utilizadas. Estes resultados, ainda que indiquem a necessidade de mais estudos, permitem concluir que a RNAi é uma tecnologia promissora como antiviral contra a raiva. / Rabies is a zoonotic disease that affects all mammals and causes more than 55.000 human deaths every year, caused by rabies virus (RABV) a virus of the Mononegavirales order, Family Rhabdoviridae and the Lissavirus genus. After the onset of the symptoms, the illness has a fast progression and the patients feel intense physical suffering. Currently, human rabies treatment has been based on the Milwaukee Protocol which consists on the induction of coma and massive antiviral therapy. Despite this protocol has been successful in two cases, including a Brazilian case (Recife State), more studies on antiviral for human rabies treatment are required. RNA interference is a new antiviral approach, which gives hope to the possibility of rabies antiviral treatment. The aim of this study was to assess the decrease in the titer of rabies virus in vitro and in vivo using short-interfering RNAs. For this purpose, three siRNAs (siRNA 124, siRNA B, siRNA 750) were used with antisense strands complementary to rabies virus nucleoprotein (N) mRNA. Pasteur virus strain (PV) of rabies virus and BHK-21 cells were used, and the monolayers were transfected with each of tree RNAs with Lipofectamine-2000. After 22 hours, the siRNA-treated and the control plates were tested by direct fluorescent antibody test (DFAT) with anti-rabies virus nucleocapsid antibody conjugate with fluorescein isothiocianate. Virus titers were calculated by the Spearman-Karber method. The results revealed that all three siRNAs reduced the titer of PV strain and a more intense effect was obtained with siRNA B. The titer of the PV strain in the control plate was 6.43lg TCID50%/ml and 5.56lg TCID50%/ml in the plate treated with siRNA B, respectively. The similar result was obtained in plates treated with siRNAs 124 and 750. The title of PV strain of these plates was 5.71lg TCID50%/ml of siRNA 124 and 5.65lg TCID50%/ml of siRNA750, respectively. No cytopathic or cytotoxic effect was observed in the monolayers treated with Lipofectamine-2000®. Swiss albino mice with 21 days weighing between 11 and 14g infected with strain PV by the intracerebral route used in this in vivo essay. After two hours of infection, a pool solution of 3 siRNAs with lipofectamine was also inoculated by the intracerebral route. The animals with paralysis were euthanized and those which survived were observed until the 30th day when they were also euthanized. The central nervous system of all animals were collected and induced to IFD. The title viral test group was 7.03logLD50%/ml and the control group was 7.13logLD50%/ml. The in vitro test results indicate that siRNAS are effective in inhibiting the replication of rabies virus with similar efficiencies. The use of the pool of three siRNA in mice resulted in 30% of survivors for 100 LD50% of PV virus, while the same dose led to 100% mortality in untreated animals. A lower efficiency in inhibiting the replication of rabies virus in vivo when compared with results in vitro could be possibly due to the high viral doses used. These results, although indicative of the need for further studies, show that RNAi is a promising technology as antiviral against rabies.

Nuclear hormone receptors (NHR) are important transcription factors that regulate development and metabolism in the large group of animals. Caenorhabditis elegans contains 284 nuclear receptors, which is unusually large amount compared to receptors of Drosophila melanogaster (18) and humans (48). 15 receptors of the C. elegans have homologous receptor structure with receptors of D. melanogaster and mammals. The remaining 269 NHR are specific to nematodes and belong to the group of supplementary nuclear receptors (SupNRs), the evolutionary precursor of the HNF4 - an important transcription factor in humans. In this work we describe the nuclear hormone receptor nhr-97 C. elegans, whose expression and function have not yet been studied. The gene is encoded in the genome of C. elegans and is among SupNRs. Nhr-97 consists of two isoforms A and B, whose expression in C. elegans tissues is different. Localization of gene expression in vivo was determined using lines expressing nhr-97:: GFP. For the A isoform expression of nhr-97::GFP was localized in neurons in the pharynx and the tail, in the intestine and hypodermis, in isoform B in the pharynx, in neurons around the corpus of pharynx, the head mesodermal cell and in anal sphincter. Nhr-97 expression during development of C. elegans was determined by...