Nesta tese são apresentados estudos do impacto de armadilhas no desempenho elétrico de MOSFETs em nível de circuito e um simulador Ensamble Monte Carlo (EMC) é apresentado visando a análise do impacto de armadilhas em nível de dispositivo. O impacto de eventos de captura e emissão de portadores por armadilhas na performance e confiabilidade de circuitos é estudada. Para tanto, um simulador baseado em SPICE que leva em consideração a atividade de armadilhas em simulações transientes foi desenvolvido e é apresentado seguido de estudos de caso em células SRAM, circuitos combinacionais, ferramentas de SSTA e em osciladores em anel. Foi também desenvolvida uma ferramenta de simulação de dispositivo (TCAD) atomística baseada no método EMC para MOSFETs do tipo p. Este simulador é apresentado em detalhes e seu funcionamento é testado conceitualmente e através de comparações com ferramentas comerciais similares. / This thesis presents studies on the impact of charge traps in MOSFETs at the circuit level, and a Ensemble Monte Carlo (EMC) simulation tool is developed to perform analysis on trap impact on PMOSFETs. The impact of charge trapping on the performance and reliability of circuits is studied. A SPICE based simulator, which takes into account the trap activity in transient simulations, was developed and used on case studies of SRAM, combinational circuits, SSTA tools and ring oscillators. An atomistic device simulator (TCAD) for modeling of p-type MOSFETs based on the EMC simulation method was also developed. The simulator is explained in details and its well function is tested.

A miniaturização dos transistores do tipo MOS traz consigo um aumento na variabilidade de seus parâmetros elétricos, originaria do processo de fabricação e de efeitos com dependência temporal, como ruídos e degradação (envelhecimento ou aging). Este aumento de variabilidade no nível de dispositivo se converte aos níveis de circuito e sistema como uma perda de confiabilidade ou de desempenho. Neste trabalho são apresentados métodos de simulação de efeitos causados por armadilhas de cargas (charge traps), como o NBTI e o RTS. Tomando como base simuladores elétricos comerciais, foi desenvolvida uma ferramenta capaz de simular a atividade das armadilhas durante uma simulação transiente. Para tanto, foi criado um componente em Verilog-A e um software de controle escrito em Perl. Dessa forma é possível analisar o impacto de traps (armadilhas) no comportamento do circuito considerando variações ambientais como tensões de operação, bem como analisar efeitos de ruído como o RTS e de aging como NBTI. Foram então desenvolvidos estudos de caso em um inversor, em um caminho crítico com cinco níveis lógicos e em uma memória SRAM de 32 bits, onde foi feita uma análise da relação do NBTI com o histórico do sinal de estresse no circuito. Em um segundo momento foi desenvolvido um método de análise do impacto de NBTI em circuitos digitais no nível de sistema, através de simulações de SSTA. Para tal estudo foi caracterizada a biblioteca NCSU FreePDK 45nm da Nangate, considerando o tempo como um corner, e então realizando-se uma simulação de SSTA em três caminhos críticos de diferentes complexidades. A fim de estudar a acuidade obtida nas simulações realizadas no nível do sistema, também foram realizadas simulações com o simulador elétrico desenvolvido e comparados os resultados. Observou-se um aumento na acuidade das simulações no nível do sistema quando complexidade do circuito estudado aumenta. Tal comportamento é explicado através do teorema do limite central. / The downscaling of MOS transistors leads to an increase of the variability of its electrical parameters generated both by fabrication process and by time dependent effects, such as noise and ageing. This increase of the variability at the device level turns into the circuit and systems level as a loss in the reliability or performance. This thesis presents the development of simulation methods for effects caused by traps, such as NBTI and RTS. Combining commercial electrical simulators, an enhanced Verilog-A transistor model and a control software developed in Perl, a simulation tool was created. The tool properly accounts for the activity of traps during transient electrical simulations. This way it is possible to evaluate the impact of traps in the behavior of circuits taking into account environmental variations, like supply voltage fluctuations, and evaluate noise effects like RTS and aging effects like NBTI. Case studies were carried out, considering an inverter, a five stages logic path and a SRAM, where the workload dependency on NBTI was evaluated. The impact of NBTI on combinational circuits on a system level is then evaluated through SSTA simulations. In order to perform this analysis, the Nangate NCSU FreePDK 45nm library was characterized and the circuit's age was considered as a time corner. SSTA simulations were performed in three paths of different complexities and then its results were compared with the results obtained with the electrical simulator developed showing an increase of accuracy of the SSTA method as a function of the circuit's complexity. This behavior is explained by the Central Limit Theorem.

A miniaturização dos transistores do tipo MOS traz consigo um aumento na variabilidade de seus parâmetros elétricos, originaria do processo de fabricação e de efeitos com dependência temporal, como ruídos e degradação (envelhecimento ou aging). Este aumento de variabilidade no nível de dispositivo se converte aos níveis de circuito e sistema como uma perda de confiabilidade ou de desempenho. Neste trabalho são apresentados métodos de simulação de efeitos causados por armadilhas de cargas (charge traps), como o NBTI e o RTS. Tomando como base simuladores elétricos comerciais, foi desenvolvida uma ferramenta capaz de simular a atividade das armadilhas durante uma simulação transiente. Para tanto, foi criado um componente em Verilog-A e um software de controle escrito em Perl. Dessa forma é possível analisar o impacto de traps (armadilhas) no comportamento do circuito considerando variações ambientais como tensões de operação, bem como analisar efeitos de ruído como o RTS e de aging como NBTI. Foram então desenvolvidos estudos de caso em um inversor, em um caminho crítico com cinco níveis lógicos e em uma memória SRAM de 32 bits, onde foi feita uma análise da relação do NBTI com o histórico do sinal de estresse no circuito. Em um segundo momento foi desenvolvido um método de análise do impacto de NBTI em circuitos digitais no nível de sistema, através de simulações de SSTA. Para tal estudo foi caracterizada a biblioteca NCSU FreePDK 45nm da Nangate, considerando o tempo como um corner, e então realizando-se uma simulação de SSTA em três caminhos críticos de diferentes complexidades. A fim de estudar a acuidade obtida nas simulações realizadas no nível do sistema, também foram realizadas simulações com o simulador elétrico desenvolvido e comparados os resultados. Observou-se um aumento na acuidade das simulações no nível do sistema quando complexidade do circuito estudado aumenta. Tal comportamento é explicado através do teorema do limite central. / The downscaling of MOS transistors leads to an increase of the variability of its electrical parameters generated both by fabrication process and by time dependent effects, such as noise and ageing. This increase of the variability at the device level turns into the circuit and systems level as a loss in the reliability or performance. This thesis presents the development of simulation methods for effects caused by traps, such as NBTI and RTS. Combining commercial electrical simulators, an enhanced Verilog-A transistor model and a control software developed in Perl, a simulation tool was created. The tool properly accounts for the activity of traps during transient electrical simulations. This way it is possible to evaluate the impact of traps in the behavior of circuits taking into account environmental variations, like supply voltage fluctuations, and evaluate noise effects like RTS and aging effects like NBTI. Case studies were carried out, considering an inverter, a five stages logic path and a SRAM, where the workload dependency on NBTI was evaluated. The impact of NBTI on combinational circuits on a system level is then evaluated through SSTA simulations. In order to perform this analysis, the Nangate NCSU FreePDK 45nm library was characterized and the circuit's age was considered as a time corner. SSTA simulations were performed in three paths of different complexities and then its results were compared with the results obtained with the electrical simulator developed showing an increase of accuracy of the SSTA method as a function of the circuit's complexity. This behavior is explained by the Central Limit Theorem.

Communication in team games between human player is important, but has been disregarded in teammate bots for Real-Time Strategy (RTS) games. Control over the team-mate bots have existed for a while in other genres than RTS and if implemented correctly it adds another dimension to the game. In this study we investigate whether players think it is more fun to play with an RTS bot that communicates its intentions and reasons and is controllable by the human player. But also what features are liked, disliked, missed to provide guidelines to future researchers and companies. For this we create a StarCraft RTS bot with communication and control abilities. The experiment consists of four scenarios, turning on/o communication and control, to conclude what players think is fun. All testers agreed on communication being important and more fun to play with. Beginners did, however, not like the control feature as they already had enough on their mind whereas experienced players preferred having some control over the bot We conclude that communication is an important role in team games, including RTS games. More work needs to be done how to integrate control so that beginners do not feel overwhelmed and at the same time experienced players do not feel restrained by too simple control commands.

In real-time strategy (RTS) games, the human player faces tasks such as resource allocation, mission planning, and unit coordination. An Artificial Intelligence (AI) system that acts as an opponent against the human player need to be quite powerful, in order to create one cohesive strategy for victory. Even though the goal for an AI system in a computer game is not to defeat the human player, it might still need to act intelligently and look credible. It might however also need to provide just enough difficulty, so that both novice and expert players appreciates the game. The behavior of computer controlled opponents in RTS games of today has to a large extent been based on static algorithms and structures. Furthermore, the AI in RTS games performs the worst at the strategic level, and many of the problems can be tracked to its static nature. By introducing an adaptive AI at the strategic level, many of the problems could possibly be solved, the illusion of intelligence might be strengthened, and the entertainment value could perhaps be increased. The aim of this dissertation has been to investigate how dynamic scripting, a technique for achieving adaptation in computer games, possibly could be applied at the strategic level in an RTS game. The dynamic scripting technique proposed by Spronck, et al. (2003), was originally intended for computer role-playing games (CRPGs), where it was used for online creation of scripts to control non-player characters (NPCs). The focus in this dissertation has been to investigate: (1) how the structure of dynamic scripting possibly could be modified to fit the strategic level in an RTS game, (2) how the adaptation time possibly could be lowered, and (3) how the performance of dynamic scripting possibly could be throttled. A new structure for applying dynamic scripting has been proposed: a goal-rule hierarchy, where goals are used as domain knowledge for selecting rules. A rule is seen as a strategy for achieving a goal, and a goal can in turn be realized by several different rules. The adaptation process operates on the probability of selecting a specific rule as strategy for a specific goal. Rules can be realized by sub-goals, which create a hierarchical system. Further, a rule can be coupled with preconditions, which if false initiates goals with the purpose of fulfilling them. This introduces planning. Results have shown that it can be more effective, with regard to adaptation time, re-adaptation time, and performance, to have equal punishment and reward factors, or to have higher punishments than rewards, compared to having higher rewards than punishments. It has also been shown that by increasing the learning rate, or including the derivative, both adaptation, and re-adaptation times, can effectively be lowered. Finally, this dissertation has shown that by applying a fitness-mapping function, the performance of the AI can effectively be throttled. Results have shown that learning rate, and maximum weight setting, also can be used to vary the performance, but not to negative performance levels.

In this study 272 beef heifers were studied from just prior to their first breeding season (15 October 2003), through their second breeding season and until just after they had weaned their first calves in March 2005. The study consisted of two main parts: in the first part, heifers were randomly allocated to either a synchronised TEST group or an unsynchronised CONTROL group. The TEST group received artificial insemination (AI) for 6 days followed by prostaglandin F2á (PGF) treatment on day 6 (PGF/6) and further AI for a total of 50 days, which was followed after a 6 day break by a 42 day bull breeding season. The CONTROL group were bred for the same period without PGF treatment. Synchronisation resulted in a reduction in days to first insemination (P < 0.01) and days to calving (P = 0.04). No significant difference could be demonstrated in pregnancy rate to the 50 day AI season (60.0% vs. 51.8%, TEST and CONTROL groups respectively, P = 0.18), final pregnancy rate (82.2% vs. 83.2%, P = 0.87) or pregnancy rate to the subsequent breeding season (96.0% vs. 95.0%, P = 1.00). A significant increase in mean weaning mass of the calves due to synchronisation could not be demonstrated (207.0 kg vs. 201.4 kg, TEST and CONTROL groups respectively, P = 0.32). However, data from this study were used to calculate the benefit:cost ratio, and a value of 2.8 was reached, representing the return on investment for the synchronisation protocol under these circumstances. It was concluded from this study that a PGF/6 protocol may lead to a change in the total mass of calves weaned by changing days to calving and thus weaning mass, birth mass of calves, weaning rate and/or the ratio of male:female calves born. It was further concluded that a practical way to predict the cost effectiveness of an oestrus synchronisation protocol is to determine the ratio between the total cost of the programme and the price of weaner calves per kg live mass. This ratio represents the minimum increase in mean weaning mass that has to be achieved for the programme to be cost effective if no increase in weaning rate is achieved. In the second part of this study, reproductive tract scoring (RTS) was performed on the same group of heifers one day before the onset of their first breeding season. The effect of RTS on several reproduction and production outcomes was tested, and the association of RTS with the outcomes was compared to the associations of other input variables such as mass, age, body condition score (BCS) and Kleiber ratio using multiple or univariable linear or logistic regression. RTS was associated with pregnancy rate to the 50 day AI season (P < 0.01), days to calving (r = 0.28, P < 0.01), calf weaning mass (r = 0.22, P < 0.01) and pregnancy rate to the subsequent breeding season (P < 0.01). These associations were mostly independent of associations with mass, age and BCS before the onset of the first breeding season. RTS was a better predictor of fertility than was Kleiber ratio, and similar in its prediction of calf weaning mass. It was concluded from this study that RTS is a unique predictor of heifer fertility, compares well with (but is independent of) other traits used as a predictor of production outcomes and is likely to be a good predictor of life production of the cow. / Dissertation (MSc (Veterinary Sciences))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

Det senaste decenniet har esporter växt förvånansvärt mycket i popularitet. Fenomenet esport har lett till utvecklingen av en hel uppsjö olika genrer, som alla har sina distinkta problem hos deras användarvänlighet i dess olika gränssnitt [22]. Den här studiens metod baseras på Nielsens tumregler för utvärdering av användarvänlighet i användargränssnitt, samt en kombination av både Turunen [5] och Quintans [2] uppsättning av frågor som även de är baserade på Nielsens tumregler, för att hitta vilka likheter och skillnader som finns i användarvänligheten hos tre olika spel som varje tillhör tre distinkta genrer, specifikt FPS (First Person Shooter), MOBA (Multiplayer Online Battle Arena) och RTS (Real-Time Strategy). De korresponderande spelen som undersöks är Counter Strike global offensive (CSGO), League of legends (LoL), respektive Starcraft II (SC2). Undersökningens resultat visar bland annat att SC2, spelet som representerar RTS, hade flest problem i användarvänligheten medan LoL och CSGO hade betydligt färre problem. HUD:en (Heads-Up Display) var gränssnittet som stod ut mest för SC2 eftersom det antog flest antal problem. Detta resultat kan anses som logiskt när man ser till spelets popularitet jämfört med de övriga två, då de andra är mycket populärare sett till antal visningstimmar. Dock är genrerna RTS och MOBA mycket lika i sin utformning och man hade därför kunnat förvänta sig att LoL och SC2 skulle haft ett flertal likheter, vilket de inte hade. Studien visar generellt sett på en mångfald i skillnader hos deras problem och även en mångfald i styrkor. / In the last decade, esports has been continuously exceeding expectations in its popularity. The phenomenon of esports has led to the development of a whole lot of different genres, which all have their own distinct problems/strengths in the usability of their user interfaces [22]. Inspired by Nielsen’s heuristics for user interface inspection, as well as using a combined set of questions from Turunen [5] and Quintans [2] to evaluate the usability of a user interface, this study aims to see which similarities and differences there are in the usability of distinctly chosen user interfaces of three esport games from three different genres, specifically FPS (First Person Shooter), MOBA (Multiplayer Online Battle Arena) and RTS (Real-Time Strategy) corresponding to Counter Strike global offensive (CSGO), League of legends (LoL) and Starcraft II (SC2) respectively. The result of the study shows many findings, one of the more amazing findings was that SC2, the game that represents the RTS genre, had the most usability problems in its user interfaces, whilst both CSGO and LoL had significantly fewer problems. The HUD (Heads-up display) was the interface that stood out the most for SC2 because it adopted the most problems. This result makes sense when looking at the popularity of the game compared to the others, but since the RTS and MOBA genres are partially alike, one could expect LoL to have similar problems, which it did not for the most part. The study also shows a lot of specific differences in usability problems between the various games. In addition, there were many similarities in usability strengths and very few specific similarities in usability problems between various games mentioned before.

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<p>The introduction of the digital image sensor has triggered a revolution in the field of imaging. It has not only just replaced the conventional silver halide film based imaging system, but has also enormously widened the scope of imaging applications. Previously, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) were the most popular technology for image sensors. But in the past decade, they have been rapidly replaced by the CMOS image sensor (CIS) technology. The CCD image sensors offers higher sensitivity, wider dynamic range and better resolution compared to its CMOS imager counterparts. However, the lower power performance, higher speed of operation, easier integration with signal control and processing circuitries, and the use well-established mainstream fabrication process of CMOS technology, are key advantages that have served to propel CMOS imagers beyond CCDs in the market.</p> <p>However, CIS suffers from higher temporal noise compared to that of CCDs. One of the major noise sources in CIS is the 1/ noise generated from the in-pixel active amplifier. Due to continuous shrinking of MOS devices, the random telegraph signal (RTS) noise is emerging as a dominant noise source over other low frequency noise in CMOS imagers, resulting into reduced imaging performance.</p> <p>The RTS noise which evolves from trapping and de-trapping of electrons by the defects in the oxide, causes fluctuation in the drain current of the MOSFET. In this work, we have carried out time-domain measurement of RTS noise in CIS pixels. The time domain RTS measurements provide useful information about its characteristics in different operating conditions, which can be further used to extract the trap parameters and determine the optimum settings of operation of CIS.</p> <p>The capability of integrating various on-chip operations, higher speed and lower fabrication cost has made the CIS a good choice for various imaging applications. In order to demonstrate the extent of possible applications of CIS, we have developed an imaging system using a CIS. Two major concerns of biomedical imaging systems are their speed and cost. The system presented here is implemented using a CIS and FPGA (field programmable gate array) that provides a low-cost and high frame rate solution for biomedical microscopy.</p> / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Communicating design is in many aspects a difficult process. Game design is not only directives on look and feel, but also carries intentionality. To properly convey intentionality, a common abstract vocabulary is a well-established method for expressing design. Game design patterns are an attempt to formalize and establish such a vocabulary. Game design patterns are a debated tool and this paper aims to examine the practical application of a pattern through a quantitative study in order to strengthen the potential for a more cohesive definition of the term. This is done by first establishing a game design pattern through observation of RTS games. The pattern is then studied through implementation in three commercial RTS games. The results focus on quantitative data gathered from AI vs AI matches related to game pacing. Through testing and analysis of the AI matches it can be stated that game design patterns in a contextualized setting supports the idea of using game design patterns as a formal tool. It was further concluded that the AI also came with limitations in how the collected data is applicable to the overall design of the games. Additional studies using quantitative data in conjunction with qualitative observations could lend further support to game design patterns as a useful tool for both researchers and developers. / Kommunikation av design är i många avseenden en invecklad process. Design av spel innebär inte enbart riktlinjer för utseende och känsla, utan också intentionalitet. En beprövad metod för att uttrycka design och intentionalitet är skapandet av ett gemensamt vokabulär. Game design patterns är ett försök att upprätta och formalisera just ett sådant vokabulär inom speldesign. Game design patterns är ett debatterat verktyg och detta arbetet ämnar undersöka den praktiska tillämpningen av ett pattern genom en kvantitativ studie för att stärka potentialen för en mer sammanhängande definition av termen. Detta utförs genom att först etablera ett game design pattern med hjälp av observation av RTS-spel. Sedan studeras det genom implementation i tre kommersiella RTS-spel. Resultatet fokuseras på kvantitativ data relaterat till pacing som insamlas från matcher mellan två AI. Genom analys av AI-matcherna kan det anses att game design pattern i en kontextualiserad inramning stöder teorin att använda design patterns som ett formellt designverktyg. Vidare drogs slutsatsen att användandet av AI också innebär begränsningar i hur tillämplig den insamlade datan är i den övergripande designen av spel. Fler studier med kvantitativ data ihop med kvalitativa observationer kan ytterligare stödja idén om game design pattern som ett användbart verktyg för både forskare och utvecklare inom spel.