While the literature on Black-white differences in major depressive disorder (MDD) and depressive symptoms is robust, less robust is the literature on how these outcomes are patterned within the US Black population and why differences exist. Given increasing numbers of first-generation immigrants from the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, among other regions of the world, as well as increasing numbers of second- and third-generation immigrants, continued aggregation has the potential to mask intra-racial differences between these ethnic-immigrant groups and Black Americans with more distant ancestral ties to Africa (i.e., African Americans). Among these subgroups, the extremely limited data disaggregating the US Black population suggest the following patterns. First, foreign-born Black immigrants have lower levels of MDD and related symptoms relative to US-born Black Americans, a finding which is consistent with theories of foreign-born health advantage. Second, among the US-born, Caribbean adults have higher levels of MDD and related symptoms relative to all other Black Americans, a finding which is inconsistent with theories related to intergenerational declines in health toward convergence to native-born levels. Lastly, and contrary to results among adults, first- and second-generation Caribbeans have lower levels of depressive symptoms relative to all other Black youth. This dissertation sought to better understand how depression and its related symptoms are patterned within the US Black population, as well as how mechanisms causing these outcomes may vary across subgroups defined by domains related to immigration. Chapter 1 was a systematic review, which comprehensively synthesized depression and related symptoms within the US Black population across these domains, including a summary of mechanisms proposed toward explaining intra-racial variation. Using longitudinal data, Chapter 2 examined whether, and if so when, growth curve models of depressive symptoms varied by immigrant generation contrasts among a representative sample of Black youth followed into adulthood. And using representative data from the largest study of Black mental health, Chapter 3 examined whether the relationship between racial identity, a presumed protective factor against depression and related symptoms, and MDD varied between US-born Caribbeans and all other US-born Black Americans. The systematic review of Chapter 1 revealed substantial variation in the prevalence of depression and its related symptoms within the US Black population by nativity, region of birth, age at immigration, and Caribbean ethnic origin. Results additionally confirmed that much of what is known about intra-racial heterogeneity comes from a single data source, the National Study of American Life (NSAL). Using longitudinal data of youth followed into adulthood, Chapter 2 found evidence of diverging depressive symptoms trajectories among Black respondents by immigrant generation (first/second-generation compared with third and higher generations); notably, contrasts among Black respondents varied from those of other racial/ethnic groups (Asian, Hispanic/Latinx, non-Hispanic white). Lastly, results from Chapter 3 suggest aspects of racial identity may not be protective for US-born Caribbeans, pointing to variations in racialization experiences as a distal cause. Additional research using larger sample sizes, more diverse subgroups of Black ethnic immigrants, as well as longitudinal data, is needed to further understand patterns of and additional sources underlying heterogeneity of depression and its related symptoms within the US Black population.

The aim of this study was to contribute to the limited literature on Mixed-Race identity development in the post-apartheid context while providing a personal, evocative, and critical exploration of Mixed-Race identity. The objectives were to use self-reflection as a tool to think critically about how close relationships and other systemic factors (such as friendships, school environment and broader societal factors) that contributed to my Mixed-Race identity development, played a significant role. The autoethnographic methodology was used to harness the quality of evocative and personal writing in the process of knowledge creation and establishing a voice for the Mixed-Race experience through the narration of my personal experiences. Autoethnography is a methodology that situates the researcher as the ‘data’ by using first-person accounts of their experiences to analyse and discuss particular social and cultural phenomena. Root’s ecological model for multiracial identity development was used as a framework to explore and analyse how systemic factors influenced and shaped my Mixed-Race identity development. Additionally, Worthman’s bio-ecocultural model was used to explore the influence of my bond with my parents on my racial identity formation in childhood. Data collection involved me engaging in a reflexive journaling process. Thematic analysis was used to develop themes from my reflexive journal. Three main themes were found, namely my bond with my parents and their socialisation practices, my experience of being ‘the other’ and an outsider in social settings, and my close friendships. While I discuss the themes separately, there was considerable overlap between the themes and the factors involved in the discussion which suggests a complex relationship between multiple systemic factors (i.e. gender, skin tone, familial relationships, and social settings) that influenced my racial identity development. In conclusion, my racial identity development was (and still is) a lifelong process of self-discovery as I continue to be confronted with my dual-racial heritage in a predominantly monoracial South Africa. Based on the findings and conclusions of this study, the limitations and potential recommendations for future research has also been discussed. / Mini Dissertation (MA (Clinical Psychology))-- University of Pretoria, 2021. / Psychology / MA (Clinical Psychology) / Unrestricted

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Humanities at the University of the Witwatersrand in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts by Research in Sociology, 2016 / "A reflective contemplation on the ordinary humanity of black South Africans under apartheid". [Quotation taken from p.4. No abstract provided] / GR2017

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Research suggests discrepancies between principals of color and White principals in their motivations and reflections on racism and how it shapes their philosophies, practice, and persistence in leading schools in historically underserved urban communities. Several scholars have discussed the pivotal role of early racial identity experiences in the beliefs and practices for Black and Latinx school leaders (Douglas, Wilson, and Nganga, 2014; Hernandez, Murakami, and Cerecer, 2014; Lomotey, 1989; Wilson, 2016). Scholars such as Gooden and O’Doherty (2015), Hines (2015), Theoharis and Haddix (2011), and Toure and Thompson-Dorsey (2018) have examined how White principals reflect on concepts of race in their work. These researchers call for further study, specifically on how White leaders’ reflection on race manifests in their beliefs and day to day practices. This serves as the impetus for this dissertation, which is framed by two research questions: 1. Why do some White principals choose to lead schools that serve historically underserved communities? What, if any, reflections on early racial experiences are common among these leaders? 2. How do the motivations and reflections on early racial experiences of White principals who chose to lead in historically underserved communities inform their leadership philosophy and play out in their practices? This study examines the role of racial literacy in the principal seat, specifically as White administrators attempt to enact leadership in low-income urban school settings that serve a majority of students of color. Using a significant body of literature as well as results from a qualitative study, it describes the journey of four White New York City charter school principals as they reflect on early racial experiences and what brought them to the principal seat. The study employs Toure and Thompson-Dorsey’s (2018) theories around the White racial frame in leadership and Khalifa’s (2018) culturally responsive school leadership (CRSL) framework to code leadership behaviors observed on site. The post-visit debrief allows insights into how the principals saw their work and the degree to which they centered racial equity in their beliefs and practice. The paper then examines the impact of recollections on racial experiences and motivations on White leader beliefs and practices via a racial autobiography and subsequent interview. It classifies leaders’ racial autobiography and interview data according to Helm’s (1995) White racial identity model. The study concludes by theorizing how its findings can be used to better understand the intersection between principals’ racial identity and practice. This study is significant because it draws close connections between Helm’s White racial identity model (1995) and Khalifa’s (2018) theories on culturally responsive school leadership. This can support future research that seeks to connect racial mindsets to practice. The results of this work can also inform more rigorous hiring practices so that districts and networks unearth race neutral mindsets in candidates. Otherwise, it is likely that we will see a continuation of the colorblind approach that has held back so many promising young students of color.

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The purpose of this study were three-fold: First, this study examined occupation prestige ratings of African American adolescents using a modified version of the Hatt-North (1947) Occupation Prestige Scale. A second purpose investigated the effects of cultural mistrust on occupation prestige preferences, as well as aspirations and expectations. Finally, this study examined the effects of cultural mistrust and achievement motivation on the occupational aspirations of Black youth.