Enrollment by African American students in U.S. colleges and universities has increased since 2009, but graduation and retention remains low for this group. Within the African American community, education is considered a central aspect of social empowerment; however, the effect of discrimination, bias, and stereotyping are key when considering achievement indices within a cultural framework. The coping mechanisms that African Americans have developed to combat discrimination, bias, and stereotype threat may contribute to poor performance in college. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between racial socialization and African American students' academic motivation, academic self-efficacy, and likelihood of attending graduate school. Drawing from self-determination theory, it was hypothesized that the variables have a positive relationship. A quantitative survey design was used. One hundred-three African American undergraduate students were recruited via convenience sampling to participate in an online survey. Results from a multiple regression analyses indicated no significant relationship between the variables. The findings from this study are not consistent with previous findings that indicate racial socialization has an impact on African Americans' academic performance and motivations, implying the need for future research to include multiple variables that might impact outcomes such as family functioning, access to educational resources, or peer association. Greater numbers of African Americans enrolled in undergraduate programs may, in turn, increase the pool of participants eligible to attend graduate programs. Future research can help parents, researchers, and practitioners better understand the diverse and unique needs of African American youths.

Race has been considered to serve as a barrier to leisure for most Blacks. Such claims have been based on a few studies many of which are theoretically faulty. This dissertation research attempts to address the current shortcomings of the literature by exploring the relationships between racial socialization, racial identity, saliency, and the free-time choices of Black youth. Using a web-based survey, the relationship between the racial socialization behaviors of parents and development of racial ideologies is described. Findings provide support for the idea that specific race-related behaviors and messages and influence the development of one's racial identity. The results from the web-based survey are also used to test the Salience of Race in Leisure Questionnaire which is intended to determine the extent to which one considers race when selecting free-time activities. Finally, focus groups explore the race-related meanings that youth attach to their free-time activities. Findings provide information about the impact of racial socialization on the beliefs youth develop concerning Black and non-Black activities. In summary, this study provides a starting point for examining socialization and saliency as factors impacting the free-time decisions of Blacks. Much replication, extension and application research will be required to extend findings from current results using student and general population samples. The dissertation is organized in five sections. An introductory section presents the theoretical orientation for research. The second, third, and fourth sections explain the relationship between racial socialization, racial identity and saliency of race, and free-time activities. The final section provides a summary of the key findings of this dissertation.

Although psychologists and sociologists have studied the origin and nature of European American children’s racial biases for decades, relatively little is known about the role of European American families in shaping their young children’s understanding of and attitudes about race. The primary goal of the current study was to examine European American mothers’ approaches to race-related issues with their children, with particular interest in exploring the ways mothers may influence their young children’s racial attitudes. I explored these questions by completing a multi-method study of 84 European American mothers and their four- to five-year-old children. Mothers read two books with race-related themes out loud to their children and then completed surveys concerning their race-related attitudes and behaviors while their children worked with a researcher to complete measures of cognitive skills and racial attitudes. Results indicated that European American mothers provide few race-related messages to their preschool-aged children. Specifically, mothers’ self-reports of their racial socialization strategies and their behaviors during the book reading session indicated that they are reluctant to discuss race explicitly. Furthermore, neither mother’s self-reported racial socialization strategies nor their behavior in the lab predicted their children’s racial attitudes. Instead, children’s racial attitudes were related to their mothers’ friendships. Those children whose mothers had a higher percentage of non-European Americans friends showed lower levels of racial biases than those children whose mothers had a lower percentage of non-European American friends. This study suggests that children’s racial attitudes are unaffected by mothers’ vague messages about diversity; instead, it seems that mothers need to engage in intimate, cross-race relations and send explicit, frequent race-related messages if they hope to influence their children’s racial attitudes. / text

The discussion of race within body image research has for many years been a topic of empirical focus. However, remaining still is a lack of knowledge regarding the unique sociocultural factors that are involved in African American women’s experience of body and the development of body dissatisfaction. Racial identity and family background may impact Black women’s body attitudes. The proposed study is an exploratory investigation of body dissatisfaction in a sample of African American women college students. Specifically, the role of racial identity and the endorsement of racial socialization messages received from family will be examined. Findings will serve to increase understanding of the sociocultural underpinnings of body image among Black women. Racial identity and racial socialization will be tested as potential predictors of body dissatisfaction through hierarchical multiple regression analyses. Racial identity status will be examined as a potential mediator of racial socialization and body dissatisfaction. / text

A major challenge facing parent educators and professionals who provide prevention and early intervention programs/services for people of colour, specifically Black families in Halifax Regional Municipality (HRM), is the lack of culturally relevant programs. An Afrocentric approach that incorporates concepts from the Empowerment and Ecological Systems theories will bridge this gap because it provides a framework for examining the impact of culture and race on Black family life and parenting. Reflecting on the African proverb, "it takes a village to raise a child", the study emphasizes the role of Black communities in supporting families for enhancing the healthy development of their children. The study examines Black parents' beliefs and goals about using racial socialization as a parenting strategy to address issues of race and discrimination that impact Black parenting. Findings indicate that parents in HRM are currently practicing some form of racial socialization, and are receptive to this model.

abstract: This dissertation used the risk and resilience framework to examine the associations between perceived racial discrimination, family racial socialization, nativity status, and psychological distress. Regression analyses were conducted to test the links between perceived racial discrimination and psychological distress and the moderation on these associations by family racial socialization and nativity status. Results suggest, for U.S.-born adolescents, cultural socialization strengthened the relation between subtle racial discrimination and anxiety symptoms. In addition, promotion of mistrust buffered the relations of both subtle and blatant racial discrimination on depressive symptoms. For foreign-born adolescents, promotion of mistrust exacerbated the association between blatant racial discrimination and depressive symptoms. Overall, the findings revealed the detrimental effects of perceived racial discrimination on the mental health of Asian American adolescents, how some family racial socialization strategies strengthen or weaken the relation between perceived racial discrimination and psychological distress, and the different ways foreign-born and U.S-born adolescents may interpret racial discrimination and experience family racial socialization. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Family and Human Development 2012

I developed and tested a model of relationships between primary caregiver ethnic identity and religiosity, primary caregiver experiences of discrimination stress, parent-child relationships, adolescent ethnic identity and religiosity, and their impact over time on adolescent academic orientation and positive future outlook. The sample consisted of youth and their families participating in an ongoing family centered intervention trial in a northwest metropolitan area. The theoretical frameworks that guided this study were Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, sociocultural theory, social identity theory, and critical race theory. The hypotheses regarding the relationships between key variables and supported by the aforementioned theoretical frameworks were evaluated using analysis of variance techniques and structural equation modeling. Study findings suggest that parental identity and cultural socialization influence adolescent religiosity and ethnic identity in early adolescence. Primary caregivers' sense of ethnic identity and religiosity directly impact cultural socialization of their children, which in turn influences adolescent identity development. The parent-child relationship plays a predominant role in positive youth outcomes (i.e., academic orientation and positive future outlook) above and beyond adolescent ethnic identity and religiosity considerations. Implications of the present study for both research and practice are discussed.

This family histories research study uses life history methods to explore narratives of parents’ lives regarding ways in which they socialize their children and engage school staff around issues of race and racism. The information gathered is from interviews with the two primary participants, two focus groups; one with each primary participant and the adults with whom they are raising their elementary school (Pre-K to Grade-5) children, and follow-up interviews with both primary participants. The first finding in this study is that the family life stories in both families play a direct role in socializing their children, in that the parents have shared many of their life stories related to race and racism with one another and their children prior to and regardless of this study. The second finding is that the family life stories in both families play a role in their engagement with school staff around issues of race and racism. Both findings are revealed within the themes of overt racism, covert racism, awakening (the process of one suddenly realizing something he/she had never realized), and closeness (the feeling of some level of emotion or personal connection). Also discussed, following the themes and findings, is the commonality between the two families in this study, enrolling their children in the same racially and culturally diverse International Baccalaureate school. Recommendations include: bringing to the attention of educational leaders and policy-makers the advantages of analyzing ones’ own history; providing the opportunity for voices most often unheard to be listened to and heard by policy-makers and decision makers; and that further research into the impact of policies that are intended to address issues related to race, racism, and other equal opportunity and/or anti-discrimination efforts are confirmed impactful through the voices of individuals.

Ethnic Racial Socialization (ERS) is a specific form of socialization that African-American parents use to respond to culturally specific challenges (James, Coard, Fine & Rudy, 2018). A large component of expanding the ERS process requires including Gendered Racial Socialization (GRS) dimensions by exploring gendered racial micro aggressions and discerning differences. Additionally, it is important to note that a thorough review of the ERS literature confirmed the lack of empirical research on ERS and paternal figures (Priest et al., 2016). As such, this pilot study, is an initial investigation to explore ways in which African American fathers are socializing their daughters to address gendered racial microaggressions. Through in-depth semi-structured interviews, results will include messages that are transmitted, modes of transmission and concerns pertaining to gendered racial microaggressions their daughters will experience. By shedding light on this construct, African-American fathers could be equipped with better effective ERS practices geared at the varied experiences their African American daughters endure.

In 2005, Florida enacted the Justifiable Use of Deadly Force legislation, known as Stand Your Ground (SYG) laws, in response to the Workman case. The aftermath of that case led to the expansion of the laws that removed the duty to retreat principle and allowed citizens to employ deadly force when imbued with fear. The SYG laws as written appeared to imply state-sanctioned violence, with an increase in homicides, coupled with racial disparities. This study employed a quantitative inquiry with a causal-comparative design to explore whether a relationship existed between racial socialization and fear of crime in SYG states compared to non-SYG states, using the lens of critical race theory, contact theory and policy learning theory. The study included 112 participants recruited through social media, they were ages 18 years and older, from Florida, Maryland, North Carolina, and Virginia who had no connections to an SYG case. The data were analyzed using analysis of covariance and indicated statistical significance between the state of residency and an individual's decision to fight back when presented with a scenario similar to the Trayvon Martin case. The results also yielded a statistical significance between gender, ethnicity, and an individual'€™s decision to fight back in the SYG scenario. The findings of this study confirm that the state of residency may impact the decision to employ deadly force or fight back. However, other results are not consistent with previous research. This study provides legislatures with a means for reforming the SYG rhetoric, as well as decrease the public'€™s misconceptions about the SYG laws.