Nowadays, fulfillment of the tactical operations in secrecy has great importance for especially subsurface and surface warfare platforms as a result of improvements in weapon technologies. Spreading out of the tactical operations to the larger areas has made discrimination of targets unavoidable. Due to enlargement of the weapon ranges and increasing subtle hostile threats as a result of improving technology, &ldquo / visual&rdquo / target detection methods left the stage to the computerized acoustic signature detection and evaluation methods. Despite this, the research projects have not sufficiently addressed in the field of acoustic signature evaluation. This thesis work mainly investigates classification and recognition techniques with TRN / LOFAR signals, which are emitted from surface and subsurface platforms and proposes possible adaptations of existing methods that may give better results if they are used with these signals. Also a detailed comparison has been made about the experimental results with underwater acoustic signals.

Most electromagnetic interference standards specify that measurements of radiated emissions must be performed in the far field (FF), e.g. at an open-area test site or in a semi-anechoic chamber. Since near field (NF) measurements are cheaper, quicker and more flexible compared to FF tests, establishing a correlation between NF and FF data is of great research interest. One strategy to achieve this goal is to find a set of basic radiators comprising electric and magnetic dipoles that generate the same NF as the original source at selected observation points. This set of dipoles, based on the uniqueness theorem, can then be used to predict the FF radiation patterns. The uniqueness theorem requires that electric or magnetic fields are matched on a closed surface with respect to the magnitude and phase. The focus of this thesis is the investigation of FF prediction based on NF magnitude-only data. In this thesis, a robust NF-FF conversion model based on Genetic Algorithms (GAs) is built up to predict the radiation of printed circuit boards (PCBs). This is done by introducing a dipole moment magnitude range pre-selection before the initialisation step of GAs, customising the processes of selection, crossover and mutation for anti-sticking and checking the correlation between NF and FF fitness values. Since the performance of GAs is tightly related to the number of dipoles in the GA model, FF characteristics of generic radiation sources (such as a long wire and a large loop) are analysed using both analytical calculation and source modelling by GAs. For structures with simple FF patterns, if more dipoles than necessary are used, the computational cost of GAs is unnecessarily high. On the other side, for structures with complicated FF patterns, the GA modelling may not be able to well approximate the FF radiation, due to the limitation for GAs to tackle too many unknowns. Therefore the scope of the model applicability is discussed, and a dipole number N, depending on the electrical size of the source, is recommended for GA modelling. By applying GAs to get the equivalent dipole set of a radiating PCB from the magnetic NF magnitudes, NF sampling approaches are investigated in detail, including where to locate NF sampling planes, what plane coverage angle to choose, how many points to observe, what type of data to collect, what dynamic range to allow for the data, and how many planes to choose. Two case studies are presented for predicting the FF radiation of PCBs from magnetic NF magnitude-only observations, and validate the NF sampling approaches in this thesis.

This thesis deals with the distribution of noise in the computer case and radiation into the neighborhood. Influence of geometrical shape and size of the computer case on radiated noise from the computer was investigated as well as effect of placement of the fan. Reducing noise by using sound absorbing material into computer case and result of the suitable position of the computer in the working environment were also tested. Simulation of the noise diffusion and effectivity of anti-noise equipment was executed in Ansys FEM program.

Dans le cadre de nos travaux de recherche, nous sommes parvenus à introduire une utilisation déterministe des chambres réverbérantes, en proposant un nouveau paradigme de la technique du retournement temporel. Nous sommes capable de réaliser le même type de tests d'immunité rayonnée que dans une chambre anéchoïque, tout en profitant des avantages liés aux propriétés physiques des milieux fortement réverbérants comme la génération de champs de fortes intensités à partir de niveaux de puissances injectées relativement faibles.En effet, les études menées dans cette thèse ont démontré la faisabilité d'un moyen de test d'immunité rayonnée novateur, permettant la génération de fronts d'onde cohérents dans une cavité résonante et dont la direction de propagation et la polarisation sont contrôlées sans aucun déplacement mécanique des sources génératrice du champ ou de l'équipement sous test. Un autre avantage majeur de ce nouveau système, baptisé chambre électromagnétique à retournement temporel (TREC), réside dans le fait de pouvoir générer dans une chambre réverbérante, des champs impulsionnels dont l'extension temporelle est de courte durée alors que cette capacité n'était pas envisageable avant ces travaux.Pour cela, la TREC repose sur la connaissance du champ sur une surface de mesure arbitraire, située entre les sources et l'objet sous test, dans la direction de propagation du front d'onde souhaitée. Cette phase de caractérisation peut être réalisée à l'aide d'une mesure de la fonction de transfert entre le port des antennes sources et une sonde de champ déplacée sur la surface de mesure.Le principe de notre système se base sur l'association de la technique du retournement temporel et du principe d'équivalence. Le retournement temporel permet d'assurer une fenêtre temporelle, dans laquelle les conditions de propagation du champ dans la chambre réverbérante sont identiques à celles en espace libre, et permet d'obtenir une propagation d'un front d'onde convergent vers une source ponctuelle qui aurait initialement créé un front d'onde divergent. Le principe d'équivalence permet de passer d'une source ponctuelle à une source de rayonnement étendue, permettant de créer une distribution spatiale du champ arbitraire et de contrôler ainsi sa direction de propagation et sa polarisation.Ce nouveau système à été validé, dans un premier temps, à l'aide d'un ensemble de simulations numériques exploratoires pour déterminer les paramètres influents sur ses performances. Puis il a été étudié à partir de mesures réalisées dans la chambre réverbérante du Département de Recherche en Électromagnétisme, à Supélec, démontrant ainsi de façon expérimentale la faisabilité et l'intérêt du développement de ce moyen de test, complémentaire à l'utilisation actuelle des chambres réverbérantes à brassage de modes pour la génération de front d'onde cohérents pulsés. / In the framework of our research work, we present an innovative system which allows to control the spatio-temporal distribution of a coherent field in an strongly reflecting environment. This system called " Time reversal electromagnetic chamber" (TREC), makes possible the generation of high intensity pulsed wavefront, in a reverberating chamber, and whose direction of propagation and polarisation are modifieable in real time without any mechanical mouvement of neither the sources generating the field, here radio antennas, nor the equipment under test.For this, the TREC is based on knowledge of the field on an arbitrary surface of measurement, located between the sources and the object under test, in the direction of propagation of the wavefront desired. This phase of characterization may be performed with the help of a measurement of the transfer functions between the port of the antennas and a field probe moved on the arbitrary surface of measurement.The principle of the TREC is based on the association of the technique of time reversal and of the principle of equivalence. Time reversal allows to ensure a temporal window in which the conditions of propagation of the field in the reverberation chamber are identical to those in free space and which allows to obtain a propagation of a wavefront converging towards a punctual source which would initially have created a diverging wavefront. The equivalence principle allows to go from a punctual source to a an extended source of radiation, thus allowing to create an arbitrary spatial distribution of the field and thereby to control its direction of propagation.This new system was validated with the help, at first, of a set of numerical exploratory simulations in order to determine the influential parameters on its performance and then studied from measurements carried out in the reverberation chamber of the ``Département de recherche en électromagnétisme'', at Supélec, thus demonstrating experimentally the feasibility and the interest of the development of this testing facility for the generation of pulsed coherent wavefronts, complementary to the current use mode-stirred reverberation chambers.

Perçues jusqu’au XIXe siècle comme des masses gélatineuses aux propriétés urticantes, les méduses ont été classées dans le groupe des zoophytes, organismes intermédiaires entre les animaux et les végétaux. Les savants s’en sont alors servis pour démontrer la continuité entre les êtres vivants végétaux et animaux et elles sont devenues des arguments essentiels dans l’établissement de l’échelle des êtres. A partir du XIXe siècle, on découvre, en particulier grâce à la microscopie, la complexité de leur anatomie, ce qui permet enfin de les caractériser de manière positive. Au milieu du XIXe siècle, on met en évidence les différentes phases de leur cycle de vie et l’organisation en colonie de certaines méduses. Les méduses deviennent alors l’un des principaux centres d’intérêt des zoologistes et des embryologistes qui cherchent à trouver la signification évolutive des différentes étapes de leur développement. Le terme de méduse apparaît alors pour désigner un de leurs stades de vie. En parallèle de cette histoire conceptuelle, les différentes étapes de cette classification ont été marquées par des difficultés d’étude qui ont fait que les méduses constituaient un des rares groupes non définis par des caractères positifs à la fin du XVIIIe siècle. En effet, si les expéditions scientifiques ont permis de récupérer de nombreux échantillons, bien vite s’est posé le problème de leur conservation. Face aux difficultés de maintenir leur morphologie et leurs couleurs après leur prélèvement, les images naturalistes de méduses sont donc devenues des objets d’étude essentiels dans la connaissance et la classification de ces organismes. Ces images donnent un reflet de l’évolution conceptuelle et technique, qui a accompagnée la classification des méduses / Perceived until the 19th century as gelatinous masses with stinging properties, jellyfish were classified in the group of zoophytes, intermediate organisms between animals and plants. Scientists then used it to demonstrate continuity between plant and animal living beings and became essential arguments in establishing the scale of beings. From the nineteenth century, we discover, particularly through microscopy, the complexity of their anatomy, which finally allows to characterize them positively. In the mid-nineteenth century, we highlight the different phases of their life cycle and the colony organization of some jellyfish. Jellyfish become one of the main interests of zoologists and embryologists who seek to find the evolutionary significance of the different stages of their development. The term jellyfish then appears to designate one of their life stages. In parallel with this conceptual history, the various stages of this classification were marked by study difficulties which made jellyfish one of the few groups not defined by positive characters at the end of the eighteenth century. Indeed, if the scientific expeditions allowed to recover many samples, quickly the problem of their conservation was posed. Faced with the difficulties of maintaining their morphology and their colors after their collection, the naturalistic images of jellyfish have thus become essential objects of study in the knowledge and classification of these organisms. These images give a reflection of the conceptual and technical evolution, which accompanied the classification of jellyfish

This thesis is part of a major research project to analyse vibro-acoustic characteristics from variable speed inverter driven induction motors (VSIDIM). The overall projects??? aimed at providing a better understanding of the mechanisms of sound generation from electromagnetic origins and developing a numerical model to predict the sound power emitted from a VSIDIM. The scope of this thesis is to assess experimentally the effect of various controller strategies on the radiated sound power and to develop a finite element method for calculating the electromagnetic force distribution over the stator. Various sources of noise in induction motors and their behaviour with speed and load have been reviewed. Models of the electromagnetic field and vibro-acoustic character have been discussed. An outline of various techniques of reducing noise in induction motors through design of inverters and modifications to the motor structure has been given. Experiments were conducted to assess the effect of controller strategies on the radiated sound power. Three different supplies were tested: a dynamotor which produces an almost sinusoidal supply with very low harmonic content, an inverter with a low switching frequency (less than 1kHz) and an inverter with a high switching frequency (8kHz) and various levels of random modulation. Results indicate that the sound power level of the MSC drive is a lot higher than that of the VSC 2000 drive and the dynamotor drive. The sound power level of the VSC 2000 drive and the dynamotor drive increases almost linearly with motor speed, that for the MSC drive is almost independent of speed. The sound power level of the MSC drive is almost 28dB higher than that of the dynamotor drive at 450rpm and the difference is reduced to 14dB at 1500rpm where the aerodynamic noise becomes more dominant. It has been found that at the rated speed (1500rpm), the sound power level varies by less than 3dB from no load to full load for all three sources. Although increasing the switching frequency increases the cost of the inverters and switching losses, results from the MSC and VSC 2000 drives clearly show that it reduces the radiated sound power by shifting the harmonics into higher and inaudible frequency range. The tonal nature around the switching frequency has been reduced by increasing the levels of random modulation to spread the energy over a wider range of frequencies, although the sound power level has not varied by more than 0.2dB. A finite element model has been developed to calculate the electromagnetic force distribution. The quasi-static solution method has been implemented by stepping the rotor through the time domain using a fine regular mesh in the air gap. The stator currents were experimentally obtained while the rotor currents were obtained using a 4 parameter state space model of the motor. Results of the simulation indicate the influence of stator and rotor slots, saturation and time harmonics in the current. The calculated electromagnetic force distribution has been used in a FEM/BEM acoustic model and SEA acoustic model to predict the radiated sound power which agrees reasonably well with the measured sound, thus validating indirectly the electromagnetic force simulations.

1. There is a crisis in economics. The discipline evolved in nineteenth century Europe and is difficult to adapt to modern conditions, even in the West, and particularly in alien cultures. Application of conventional economic analysis to economic activity in a culture as alien as traditional China highlights the biases in assumptions of the paradigm. 2. The concepts, models and vocabulary evolved over one hundred years ago predate important developments in the natural sciences. It is now necessary for economists to concede no goods can ever be 'produced', and they are not 'consumed' either. In clear terms matter is transformed, but is not created or destroyed (First Law of Thermodynamics). 3. When people transform matter, in lay language we say energy is 'used'. In a simple cottage industry, 'raw material' is transformed into a commodity in front of our eyes by the use of human energy and the release of energy from a 'fuel'. In modem complex economic activity, it is difficult or impossible to keep track of the processes from raw matter to transformed 'product' although the principle is the same. 4. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that in any transformation, energy is not created or destroyed, but becomes 'less available'. In short, entropy increases. This appears to work well for pure physics and chemistry, but its application to analysis of economic activity has only been notional. 5. There is a reason why economists borrowing terms from hard science experience difficulty. It is because physicists and chemists have addressed specific laboratory and engineering problems, but not the broader economic issues. The hypothesis gradually evolved in this research program that not only economic concepts and terms needed reworking, but those in physics as well. The definitions of energy as 'ability to do works and of entropy as 'unavailable energy' jar the logic of our commonsense. 6. The notion of 'available energy' was traced back to the phenomenon in physical chemistry known as exothermicity, or the release of energy during a chemical reaction. It was reasoned that while scientists had focussed on this phenomenon and measured it carefully they saw no need to ask where the energy came from, or to measure its transformation. From the perspective of analysing economic activity, the question was important. 7. It was hypothesised that the energy released from a fuel as electromagnetic radiation (mainly heat) was the residual of the set of coulombic forces within atoms that maintain the structure of shells of electrons around the protons. This idea in turn came from the presumption that molecular bonding is a residual of vectors of the set of coulombic forces within atoms, and the likelihood that in an exothermic reaction, after the reactants are said (by scientists) to 'seek equilibrium', product molecules have a portion of the coulombic forces 'left over' and not required to maintain their structures. An estimate was made of the coulombic forces extant in various fuels, and compared with the known data for their release of energy. 8. The idea was developed in detail. The concept we call in economics, 'production', and should call 'transformation' can only occur when forces locked within atoms are released as electromagnetic forces. (Gravitational forces exist because matter has been put 'there' by electromagnetic radiation). When 100 grams of dry grass fuel is burnt, about 2 megajoules of electromagnetic radiation are released. It was estimated that the coulombic forces between each electron and proton in that amount dry grass total 150 gigajoules (or giganewtons, since the reference is to forces). 9. Within the boundary of a simple economic activity, the ratio of aggregated coulombic forces locked up within atoms to the electromagnetic forces radiated out was estimated at the beginning of the activity, and then after a duration. The ratio of forces always tends towards 'evening out'. This measurement captures the entropy phenomenon which has been said by Georgescu-Roegen to be the basis of all economic activity. 10. At the roots of the economic paradigm founded by Adam Smith is the premise that the material world, as a set of substances, is a stage on which economic actors 'add value', bid prices up and down, and by their rational perception manage their livelihoods and surroundings well. From the findings of this research program it is contended that the surroundings of economic actors can be classed into two categories: locked up (coulombic) electromagnetic forces, and radiated electromagnetic forces. The former has a tendency to convert to the latter. All action, including all economic activity, and all life can be traced to a point in space and time where this conversion is (naturally) occurring. The phenomenon is analogous to a slope where water cascades, and gravitational potential energy converts to other (either useless or useful) forms of energy. To appreciate the nature of this phenomena, and to attempt to fathom its dimensions, sets our perceptions of ourselves as economic actors in a quite different and very humbling context.

This thesis is part of a major research project to analyse vibro-acoustic characteristics from variable speed inverter driven induction motors (VSIDIM). The overall projects??? aimed at providing a better understanding of the mechanisms of sound generation from electromagnetic origins and developing a numerical model to predict the sound power emitted from a VSIDIM. The scope of this thesis is to assess experimentally the effect of various controller strategies on the radiated sound power and to develop a finite element method for calculating the electromagnetic force distribution over the stator. Various sources of noise in induction motors and their behaviour with speed and load have been reviewed. Models of the electromagnetic field and vibro-acoustic character have been discussed. An outline of various techniques of reducing noise in induction motors through design of inverters and modifications to the motor structure has been given. Experiments were conducted to assess the effect of controller strategies on the radiated sound power. Three different supplies were tested: a dynamotor which produces an almost sinusoidal supply with very low harmonic content, an inverter with a low switching frequency (less than 1kHz) and an inverter with a high switching frequency (8kHz) and various levels of random modulation. Results indicate that the sound power level of the MSC drive is a lot higher than that of the VSC 2000 drive and the dynamotor drive. The sound power level of the VSC 2000 drive and the dynamotor drive increases almost linearly with motor speed, that for the MSC drive is almost independent of speed. The sound power level of the MSC drive is almost 28dB higher than that of the dynamotor drive at 450rpm and the difference is reduced to 14dB at 1500rpm where the aerodynamic noise becomes more dominant. It has been found that at the rated speed (1500rpm), the sound power level varies by less than 3dB from no load to full load for all three sources. Although increasing the switching frequency increases the cost of the inverters and switching losses, results from the MSC and VSC 2000 drives clearly show that it reduces the radiated sound power by shifting the harmonics into higher and inaudible frequency range. The tonal nature around the switching frequency has been reduced by increasing the levels of random modulation to spread the energy over a wider range of frequencies, although the sound power level has not varied by more than 0.2dB. A finite element model has been developed to calculate the electromagnetic force distribution. The quasi-static solution method has been implemented by stepping the rotor through the time domain using a fine regular mesh in the air gap. The stator currents were experimentally obtained while the rotor currents were obtained using a 4 parameter state space model of the motor. Results of the simulation indicate the influence of stator and rotor slots, saturation and time harmonics in the current. The calculated electromagnetic force distribution has been used in a FEM/BEM acoustic model and SEA acoustic model to predict the radiated sound power which agrees reasonably well with the measured sound, thus validating indirectly the electromagnetic force simulations.

La tendance de l'intégration en électronique de puissance accentue naturellement les effets électromagnétiques parasites. Tout système d'énergie électrique devient alors source de perturbations EM aussi bien conduites que rayonnées. Mais dans le cadre de ces travaux, nous nous sommes focalisé sur l'organe de filtrage des perturbations conduites : le filtre CEM. En haute fréquence, il s'avère que ce type de système voit son comportement dégradé en raison des différents phénomènes parasites apparaissant au sein même du dispositif. Seuls les aspects magnétiques du problème ont néanmoins été traités (i.e. inductances partielles & couplages magnétiques parasites). Différentes méthodes ont été mises au point par le passé dans le but d'améliorer facilement la réponse du filtre. Cependant, il s'agit de procédés empiriques ne pouvant garantir l'optimalité de la solution de filtre construite. Les travaux réalisés au cours de cette thèse ont donc consisté à développer une nouvelle méthode d'optimisation d'un filtre CEM, et plus précisément de son routage. L'objectif est alors d'exploiter les différents phénomènes magnétiques parasites intrinsèques au montage. Calculer ce type d'éléments a donc nécessité l'utilisation d'un outil de modélisation PEEC ; méthode numérique permettant des calculs rapides en raison d'un maillage relativement limité. / The actual trend to integrate the power electronic devices naturally increases the stray electromagnetic phenomena. Every electrical system becomes thus an EM disturbances source. But as part of this work, we especially focused on the filtering device of conducted disturbances : the EMC filter. For high frequencies, degradations can be observed over the filter transfer function due to the different stray electromagnetic phenomena occurring within the device. But only the magnetic aspects have nevertheless been treated (i.e. partial inductances & stray magnetic couplings). Different methods have been worked out in the past in order to easily improve the filter response. However, these are empirical processes that could not guaranty the built filter solution optimality. The works done throughout this PhD have consisted in developing a novel EMC filter optimization method, and more precisely of its routing. The aim has been to use the different stray magnetic phenomena. All of these elements can only be obtained by using a PEEC modeling tool. The PEEC method allows having fast numerical calculations thanks to a quite light meshing.

In dieser Arbeit wird das Verhalten der Störstrahlung großer Prüflinge untersucht mit dem Ziel, vorhandene Standards für Störstrahlungstests wie CISPR 16 zu verbessern. Diese Arbeit sieht als Standardtestumgebung einen reflektierenden, ausgedehnten Grund vor, auf dem sich der Prüfling befindet. Die Strahlung, die dieser aussendet, wird durch die Verteilung der elektrischen Feldstärke auf einer Testhalbkugel oberhalb des Grunds bewertet. Ihr Zentrum befindet sich am Fußpunkt des Prüflings. Eine solche Halbkugel stellt nahezu gleiche Abstände von etwa der Länge des Kugelradius' zwischen dem Prüfling und den auf ihr definierten Meßpunkten her. Da die Halbkugel geschlossen ist, kann auf ihr das gesamte vom Prüfling nach außen gestrahlte Feld nachgewiesen werden. Meßabstände mit in Normen vorgegebenen Längen sind in der Praxis nicht immer einzuhalten, vor allem dann, wenn sich Prüflinge in einer normalen Betriebsumgebung befinden. In beengten Umgebungen ist es hilfreich, Meßabstände zu verkürzen. Hieraus ergibt sich eine kleinere Testhalbkugel, die sich leichter abtasten läßt. Bei kurzen Meßabständen jedoch können Meßsonden in das Nahfeld des Prüflings ragen. Für diesen Fall werden in dieser Arbeit Feldeigenschaften in Prüflingsnähe untersucht. Aus denen ergeben sich Mindestabstände zum Prüfling, jenseits derer sich gemessene Feldstärkewerte zu größeren, in Normen vorgegebenen Abständen extrapolieren lassen. Um die Verteilung der Feldstärke auf einer Testfläche zu beschreiben, wird der Begriff der Halbwertsfläche eingeführt: Die Halbwertsfläche definiert jenen Teil der Testfläche, auf dem die Dichte der abgestrahlten Leistung mindestens die Hälfte ihres Maximums beträgt. Die Halbwertsfläche ergibt sich aus der Richtwirkung des Prüflings als Strahler. Sie ist somit ein Maß für die Wahrscheinlichkeit, auf der Testfläche das Strahlungsmaximum zu finden. Aus der Größe der Halbwertsfläche ergibt sich die nötige Anzahl an gleichmäßig auf der Testfläche verteilten Meßpunkten, um das Strahlungsmaximum mit gegebener Wahrscheinlichkeit zu finden. Wird an den Meßpunkten die Größe der Feldstärke berücksichtigt, läßt sich die Anzahl der Meßpunkte optimieren und das Vertrauen in den Test erhöhen. Als ein erster Schritt zur Entwicklung einer praktikablen Strahlungstestmethode wird die Testdrahtmethode untersucht. Bei dieser Methode wird Strahlung mit einem langen, um den Prüfling herum gespannten Draht erfaßt. Die Strahlung induziert in dem Draht einen Strom, der an den Drahtabschlüssen gemessen werden kann. Weil der Draht i. allg. lang ist, ist er sehr meßempfindlich. Ist er jedoch länger als eine Wellenlänge des abgestrahlten Felds, sind sein Übertragungsfaktor und damit die Meßergebnisse schwer zu bestimmen. Statistische Methoden der Auswertung werden hierzu untersucht. Ein System aus kleinen Meßsonden kann denselben Teil des Prüflings abdecken wie ein Testdraht. Weil als Übertragungsfaktor eines solchen Systems der einer Einzelsonde wirksam ist, lassen sich Ergebnisse aus Messungen mit einem solchen System leichter auswerten. Jedoch ist die Empfindlichkeit kleiner Sonden i. allg. gering. Der Weg zu einer praktischen Anwendung führt somit vorerst in die Richtung herkömmlicher Meßantennen, die in einem beweglichen System geeignete Testflächen abtasten. - (Die Dissertation ist veröffentlicht im Jörg Vogt Verlag, Dresden, Deutschland, http://www.vogtverlag.de, ISBN: 978-3-938860-25-0) / In this work the behavior of radiation emitted by large equipment is investigated. The aim of investigation is to improve existing standardized radiation tests. The radiation from an EUT (equipment under test) placed on reflecting ground is described by the distribution of the electric field strength on a hemispheric test area, which encloses the EUT placed in its center. This kind of area guarantees a nearly equal measurement distance to the EUT from every point defined on it. This distance is defined by the radius of the hemisphere. However, measurement distances according to standards are difficult to realize. Because of practical constraints shorter distances will become useful. This requires a smaller test area, to be scanned more easily. At shorter measurement distances field probes are possibly located in the near field of the EUT. Therefore this work investigates the behavior of the field in the vicinity of the EUT to find an adequate transition point, beyond which, field strength values can be extrapolated to distances instructed by standards with confident results. An important parameter of the field strength distribution is the half-power area. It defines that part of the test area where the radiated power exceeds the half of its maximum. The half-power area is related to the directivity of the EUT, which can be approximated by antenna theory or statistics. If the directivity of the EUT is high, the half-power area is small, and the probability to find the field maximum on the test area is low. The size of the half-power area yields to a least number of observation points, equally distributed on the test area, to find the field maximum with a high level of confidence. If the field strength measured at any observation point is considered, the distance to other observation points can be optimized, and the level of confidence in the test can be increased. As a first step in developing a practicable field scanning method is highlighted: the test wire method. This method establishes a measurement executed by a long wire which covers the EUT. At its terminations current can be measured induced by the radiation. Because the wire is long it is very sensitive. However, if it is longer than one wave length of the radiation, the evaluation of results is difficult because of an uncertain transmission factor. Therefore, some statistic methods are applied to describe the behavior of results and their maxima. Also a system of small probes, e. g. short dipoles, can cover the same part of the EUT as a test wire. The measurement with small probes can be evaluated more easily because of a unique transmission factor. However, their sensitivity is lower.