Synchrotron radiation and inverse Compton (IC) scattering are the two most essential radiation mechanisms in high energy astrophysics. Synchrotron radiation typically dominates lower energy emission, up to GeV, and IC scattering dominates higher energy gamma-ray emission. In this work, radiation codes are developed to calculate broadband synchrotron and IC spectra for relativistic astrophysical sources: Pulsar Wind Nebulae (PWNe) and Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs). Our robust radiation code takes into account varying intrinsic plasma properties (e.g., magnetic field evolution), various inverse Compton processes (synchrotron self-Compton and external Compton) while accounting for Klein-Nishina effects, as well as relativistic bulk motion of the emitting plasma.

Land surface albedo plays a key role in the surface-atmosphere internaction, because it greatly influences the shortwave radiation absorbed by the surface. Surface albedo depends on soil characteristics and vegetation types. Error in the specification of albedos of soil and vegetation may cause biases in the computation of ground temperature and surface fluxes, therefore accurate albedo estimates are essential for an accurate simulation of the Earth's climate. The study demonstrates the importance of MODIS data in assessing and improving albedo parameterization in weather forecast and climate models as well as the remote sensing retrieval of surface solar fluxes through a series of three papers. First, the NCAR Community Climate System Model (CCSM2) albedo is evaluated using the MODIS BRDF and albedo data. The model and MODIS albedo differences are related to the deficiences in the model simulation of snow cover and soil moisture and in the model's specification of leaf and stem area indexes. They are also partially caused by the deficiency of the two-stream method. Second, motivated by these analyses, a new formulation for surface albedo is developed. Over desert, most land models assume that the bare soil albedo is a function of soil color and soil moisture but independent of solar zenith angle (SZA). However, analysis of MODIS BRDF/albedo data and in situ data indicates that bare soil albedo does vary with SZA. Furthermore this SZA dependence is found to affect the surface energy fluxes and temperature in the offline land surface model sensitivity tests. Finally, the MODIS BRDF algorithm is reformulated to derive a new two-parameter scheme for the computation of land surface albedo and its SZA dependence for use in weather and climate models as well as the remote sensing retrieval of surface solar fluxes. In this formulation, the season- and pixel-dependent black-sky albedo at 60 deg SZA can be directly prescribed using the MODIS BRDF data while the two parameters are taken as a function of vegetation type only. Comparison of this formulation with those used in weather, climate, and data assimilation models (at NCAR, NCEP, and NASA) as well as those used in remote sensing groups (University of Maryland, ISCCP-FD, and CERES/TRMM) reveals the deficiencies in the land surface albedo treatment in these models and remote sensing retrieval algorithm along with suggestions for improvement.

The radiative mechanism responsible for the prompt gamma-ray burst (GRB) emission remains elusive. For the last decade, optically thin synchrotron emission from shocks internal to the GRB jet appeared to be the most plausible explanation. However, the synchrotron interpretation is incompatible with a significant fraction of GRB observations, highlighting the need for new ideas. In this thesis, it is shown that the narrow, dominating component of the prompt emission from the bright GRB090902B is initially consistent only with emission released at the optically thick jet photosphere. However, this emission component then broadens in time into a more typical GRB spectrum, which calls for an explanation. In this thesis, a previously unconsidered way of broadening the spectrum of photospheric emission, based on considerations of the lateral jet structure, is presented and explored. Expressions for the spectral features, as well as polarization properties, of the photospheric emission observed from structured, relativistic jets are derived analytically under simplifying assumptions on the radiative transfer close to the photosphere. The full, polarized radiative transfer is solved through Monte Carlo simulations, using a code which has been constructed for this unique purpose. It is shown that the typical observed GRB spectrum can be obtained from the photosphere, without the need for additional, commonly assumed, physical processes (e.g. energy dissipation, particle acceleration, or additional radiative processes). Furthermore, contrary to common expectations, it is found that the observed photospheric emission can be highly linearly polarized (up to $\sim 40 \, \%$). In particular, it is shown that a shift of $\pi/2$ of the angle of polarization is the only shift allowed by the proposed model, consistent with the only measurement preformed to date. A number of ways to test the theory is proposed, mainly involving simultaneous spectral and polarization measurements. The simplest measurement, which tests not only the proposed theory but also common assumptions on the jet structure, involves only two consecutive measurements of the angle of polarization during the prompt emission. / <p>QC 20131204</p>

Les pulsars sont des étoiles à neutron hautement magnétisées en rotation rapide produisant un rayonnement pulsé. Cette thèse est dédiée à leur magnétosphère, c'est à dire la zone proche de l'étoile à neutron, remplie d'un plasma entraîné par la rotation rapide de celle-ci. Il a été montré dès 1969 que la magnétosphère doit avoir des zones très peu denses arborant des champs électriques intenses capables d'accélérer le plasma raréfié de ces régions à des énergies très élevée le long du champ magnétique. La courbure des lignes de champ, couplé avec la rotation d'une particule autour du champ, cause un rayonnement dit de « synchro-courbure ». L'énergie est rayonnée essentiellement en photons gamma (g). Ces photons peuvent ensuite être convertis par interaction quantique photon γ-champ magnétique ou γ-γ en une paire électron-positron e+e- dont chaque composante rayonne à son tour, résultant en une cascade qui alimente la magnétosphère en plasma. Cette thèse traite particulièrement de deux phénomènes clefs de ces cascades : le rayonnement de synchro-courbure et la création de paires par interaction γγ.La théorie quantique du rayonnement de synchro-courbure est développée pour la première fois à partir des principes de base de l'électrodynamique quantique. Les paramètres compatibles avec les approximations du calcul correspondent à une large gamme de conditions physiques typiques des magnétosphères de pulsars. Les transitions quantiques sont considérées dans l'approximation continue lorsqu'elles impliquent un saut de l'impulsion de la particule dans la direction parallèle au champ, et discrète dans la direction perpendiculaire. Il en résulte un spectre tendant asymptotiquement vers les descriptions classiques des rayonnement de courbure et de synchro-courbure mais présentant des déviations très importantes lorsque les transitions discrètes dominent le rayonnement.L’interaction γγ→e+e- a été étudiée dans le cas où un gamma réagit sur un fond de photons de basse énergie. Ce mécanisme est considéré comme potentiellement important lorsque le champ magnétique n'est pas assez fort pour produire des paires par le mécanisme γ-champ magnétique. Tout indique que le fond est anisotrope, c'est pourquoi nous avons développé un formalisme permettant de prendre en compte arbitrairement les anisotropies et de produire les spectres des particules produites. Appliqué à un modèle simple d'étoile rayonnant thermiquement en X, il en résulte une dépendance forte du taux de réaction sur la direction du photon gamma.Cette thèse comprend également un modèle de chronométrage du pulsar milliseconde dans un système triple J0337+1715. Ce pulsar orbite avec deux étoiles naines blanches dont les interactions mutuelles ne sont pas négligeables. Une intégration numérique, à l'ordre newtonien et post-newtonien, a été développée pour déterminer les orbites. Un modèle complet incluant le calcul des retards du système du pulsars au télescope a été réalisé. Le modèle s'ajuste aux données de chronométrage provenant du radiotélescope de Nançay avec des résidus d'écart-type inférieur à 2 µs. Un tel système permet en principe le test du principe d'équivalence fort gravitationnel par une technique similaire à celle employée lors des expériences de laser-lune, mais avec une précision sans précédent en régime de champ fort. Ce test requiert une évaluation rigoureuse des incertitudes sur chaque paramètre, échantillonnées grâce à un code MCMC. La validation du code et l'évaluation des incertitudes sont en cours. / Pulsars are highly magnetized fast rotating neutron stars producing a pulsed radiation. This thesis is dedicated to their magnetosphere, namely the zone surrounding the star and filled with a plasma dragged by the rotation of the star. It was shown as soon as 1969 that the magnetosphere must have vacuum gaps, where intense electric fields develop that are capable of accelerating the rarefied plasma to very high energies along the magnetic field. The curvature of the field lines, together with the rotation around the magnetic field, results in the so-called «  synchrocurvature » radiation. The energy is mostly radiated in gamma photons (γ). These photons may then be converted by the quantum processes γ photon-magnetic field or γ-γ in an electron-positron pair e+e-, each component of which then radiates at its turn which results in a cascade that provides plasma to the magnetosphere. This thesis particularly deals with two key phenomena of these cascades : synchrocurvature radiation and γγ pairs.The quantum theory of synchrocurvature radiation is developed for the first time from the first principles of quantum electrodynamics. The range of parameters compatible with the approximations of the derivation covers a wide range of physical conditions typical of pulsar magnetospheres. Quantum transitions are considered in the continuous limit when they imply a jump of the particle impulsion parallel to the magnetic field, and discrete when the jump is in the perpendicular direction. It results in a spectrum that asymptotically tends to the classical descriptions of curvature and synchrocurvature radiations but that presents very important deviations when the discrete transitions dominate the radiation.The γγ→e+e- process was studied in the case of the reaction of a gamma photon on a soft photon background. This mechanism is considered as potentially important when the magnetic field is nopt strong enough for the γ-magnetic field process to efficiently produce pairs. The soft background is most likely anisotropic, and that is why we developed a formalism allowing to arbitrarily take into account anisotropies, as well as produce the spectra of the outgoing particles so as to be able to feed the subsequent cascade consistently. Applied to a simple model of a star radiating thermal X rays, it results in a strong dependence of the reaction rate on the direction of the gamma photon.This thesis also includes a timing model of the millisecond pulsar in a triple system J0337+1715. This pulsar orbits with two white-dwarf stars, and their mutual interactions are not negligible. It follows that a numerical integration of the orbits was developed at Newtonian and first post-Newtonian orders. A complete model including the computation of delays from the star to the telescope was realized. This model is able to fit the timing data from the Nançay (France) radiotelecope with a standard deviation of less than 2µs. In principle, such a system allows to test the strong equivalence principle by a technique similar to that employed in Lunar-laser-ranging experiments, but with an unprecedented accuracy in the strong-field regime. This test demands a careful estimate of the uncertainties on each parameter, which we sample using a MCMC code. The validation of the code and the evaluation of the uncertainties are ongoing.

A avaliação dos efeitos dos aerossóis em relação ao balanço radiativo local e global bem como o impacto sobre a saúde humana, principalmente em grandes centros urbanos, demanda que se conheça de forma precisa a sua concentração e distribuição espaço-temporal. Neste contexto, o monitoramento acurado de longo prazo por estações instaladas ao redor do mundo tornou-se um desafio e uma necessidade para várias áreas do conhecimento. Classicamente as estações utilizam a técnica de fotometria solar para inferir a concentração e a distribuição de tamanho dos aerossóis através da profundidade óptica do aerossol (POA) e do coeficiente de Ångström . No presente trabalho é sugerida uma metodologia para estimar POA e do coeficiente de Ångström através de quatro canais espectrais de radiômetros do tipo Multi-Filter Rotating Shadowband Radiometer (MFRSR) que operam em São Paulo desde 1999. Estas estimativas foram avaliadas em relação à rede AErosol RObotic NETwork (AERONET) entre os anos de 2004 a 2006. Os resultados mostram que, em termos de variabilidade temporal da POA, há boa concordância entre os diferentes instrumentos. Entretanto, são encontradas diferenças médias sistemáticas da ordem de 0,03 na magnitude da POA em três dos quatro canais analisados, enquanto que o valor sugerido pela OMM para uma atmosfera limpa é de no máximo 0,02. Este resultado aponta que a metodologia empregada nos MFRSR fornece valores de boa qualidade. Ainda neste trabalho, foram relacionadas variáveis meteorológicas coletadas pela Estação Meteorológica do IAG-USP com a POA e o do coeficiente de Ångström estimados neste trabalho. Observou-se uma relação linear entre o coeficiente de Ångström e a umidade relativa (UR), indicando um crescimento do tamanho médio dos aerossóis que integram um grupo com 0,20<POA<=0,60 no canal 415nm com o aumento da umidade relativa. Acredita-se que este grupo tenha predominância de aerossóis de fontes locais. As medidas de longo prazo permitiram também caracterizar, em conjunto com estimativas espaciais de POA pelo sensor Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) a bordo do satélite Terra, a influência do transporte de aerossóis de queimadas da região amazônica e do Brasil central em São Paulo, na série de dados analisados. Estes eventos contribuem para o aumento significativo da POA sobre a região metropolitana e trazem partículas ligeiramente menores que as emitidas por fontes locais. / The evaluation of the aerosol effects to the local and global radiation budget, as well as the impact on human health, particularly in large urban centers, demands knowing accurately their concentration and spatial-temporal distribution. In this context, the accurate long term monitoring from ground based stations installed around the world has become a challenge and a necessity for various areas of knowledge. Classically, the stations use the technique of Sun photometry to infer the concentration and size distribution of aerosols through the aerosol optical depth (AOD) and Ångström coefficient . In this paper we suggest a methodology to estimate AOD and Ångström coefficient through four channels of Multi-Filter Rotating Shadowband Radiometers (MFRSR) operating in Sao Paulo since 1999. These estimates were compared to the results of the AErosol RObotic NETwork (AERONET) between the years of 2004 to 2006. The results showed that the MFRSR can represent well the temporal variability of the AOD, but systematic differences were found with mean values of about 0.03 in AOD, in three of the four analyzed channels. The value suggested by WMO for clean air is at most 0.02. This result indicates that the methodology employed in MFRSR provides values of quality good. Also in this study, meteorological influences on the aerosol optical properties were analyzed. The meteorological variables were monitored at the Meteorological Station of the IAG-USP There was a linear relationship between Ångström coefficient and relative humidity (RH), indicating a growth of the average size of aerosols within a group with 0.20<AOD<=0.60, in the channel 415 nm, with increasing relative humidity. It is believed that this group has predominance of aerosols from local sources. Long term measurements also helped to characterize, together with spatial estimates of AOD by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the Terra satellite, the influence of the transport of aerosol particles from biomass burning from the Amazon region to São Paulo. It was observed that these events contribute to significant increase in AOD on the metropolitan region and bring slightly smaller particles than the emitted by local sources.

A avaliação dos efeitos dos aerossóis em relação ao balanço radiativo local e global bem como o impacto sobre a saúde humana, principalmente em grandes centros urbanos, demanda que se conheça de forma precisa a sua concentração e distribuição espaço-temporal. Neste contexto, o monitoramento acurado de longo prazo por estações instaladas ao redor do mundo tornou-se um desafio e uma necessidade para várias áreas do conhecimento. Classicamente as estações utilizam a técnica de fotometria solar para inferir a concentração e a distribuição de tamanho dos aerossóis através da profundidade óptica do aerossol (POA) e do coeficiente de Ångström . No presente trabalho é sugerida uma metodologia para estimar POA e do coeficiente de Ångström através de quatro canais espectrais de radiômetros do tipo Multi-Filter Rotating Shadowband Radiometer (MFRSR) que operam em São Paulo desde 1999. Estas estimativas foram avaliadas em relação à rede AErosol RObotic NETwork (AERONET) entre os anos de 2004 a 2006. Os resultados mostram que, em termos de variabilidade temporal da POA, há boa concordância entre os diferentes instrumentos. Entretanto, são encontradas diferenças médias sistemáticas da ordem de 0,03 na magnitude da POA em três dos quatro canais analisados, enquanto que o valor sugerido pela OMM para uma atmosfera limpa é de no máximo 0,02. Este resultado aponta que a metodologia empregada nos MFRSR fornece valores de boa qualidade. Ainda neste trabalho, foram relacionadas variáveis meteorológicas coletadas pela Estação Meteorológica do IAG-USP com a POA e o do coeficiente de Ångström estimados neste trabalho. Observou-se uma relação linear entre o coeficiente de Ångström e a umidade relativa (UR), indicando um crescimento do tamanho médio dos aerossóis que integram um grupo com 0,20<POA<=0,60 no canal 415nm com o aumento da umidade relativa. Acredita-se que este grupo tenha predominância de aerossóis de fontes locais. As medidas de longo prazo permitiram também caracterizar, em conjunto com estimativas espaciais de POA pelo sensor Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) a bordo do satélite Terra, a influência do transporte de aerossóis de queimadas da região amazônica e do Brasil central em São Paulo, na série de dados analisados. Estes eventos contribuem para o aumento significativo da POA sobre a região metropolitana e trazem partículas ligeiramente menores que as emitidas por fontes locais. / The evaluation of the aerosol effects to the local and global radiation budget, as well as the impact on human health, particularly in large urban centers, demands knowing accurately their concentration and spatial-temporal distribution. In this context, the accurate long term monitoring from ground based stations installed around the world has become a challenge and a necessity for various areas of knowledge. Classically, the stations use the technique of Sun photometry to infer the concentration and size distribution of aerosols through the aerosol optical depth (AOD) and Ångström coefficient . In this paper we suggest a methodology to estimate AOD and Ångström coefficient through four channels of Multi-Filter Rotating Shadowband Radiometers (MFRSR) operating in Sao Paulo since 1999. These estimates were compared to the results of the AErosol RObotic NETwork (AERONET) between the years of 2004 to 2006. The results showed that the MFRSR can represent well the temporal variability of the AOD, but systematic differences were found with mean values of about 0.03 in AOD, in three of the four analyzed channels. The value suggested by WMO for clean air is at most 0.02. This result indicates that the methodology employed in MFRSR provides values of quality good. Also in this study, meteorological influences on the aerosol optical properties were analyzed. The meteorological variables were monitored at the Meteorological Station of the IAG-USP There was a linear relationship between Ångström coefficient and relative humidity (RH), indicating a growth of the average size of aerosols within a group with 0.20<AOD<=0.60, in the channel 415 nm, with increasing relative humidity. It is believed that this group has predominance of aerosols from local sources. Long term measurements also helped to characterize, together with spatial estimates of AOD by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the Terra satellite, the influence of the transport of aerosol particles from biomass burning from the Amazon region to São Paulo. It was observed that these events contribute to significant increase in AOD on the metropolitan region and bring slightly smaller particles than the emitted by local sources.