Microfluidic devices have long been considered an ideal tool for rapid and inexpensive chemical analysis and reactions in areas ranging from point-of-care health to national security applications. However, fabricating microfluidic devices is time consuming, difficult and above all expensive. In commercial applications many thousand units need to be sold before the development costs are recovered. The problem is compounded since most microfluidic devices do not have generalized architectures which means that each end use requires a specialized design. The microfluidics marketplace can therefore be seen as being composed of 1000’s of niche markets. To address development costs, there is clearly a need for a versatile technology that can be used for many different applications and that enables rapid testing and optimization of new designs. This work describes such a technology: Contact Liquid Photolithographic Polymerization (CLiPP). The thesis consists of two parts: polymerization kinetics and the fabrication of polymeric microfluidic devices via CLiPP. The photopolymerization kinetics is evaluated for a number of monomer types, and the results are used to assess their suitability in the CLiPP process. Vinyl ether/maleate photoinitiated copolymerization is examined in detail. It is shown that the polymerization kinetics is dramatically influenced by the availability of easily abstractable hydrogens The presence of α-hydrogens adjacent to the vinyl ether functional group reduces the polymerization rate and the dependence of the polymerization rate as a function of initiation rate. Also, photoinitiated acrylate and methacrylate polymerization kinetics are presented. The kinetics results in these three monomer types are used to explain the different patterning properties of the monomer functionalities used in the CLiPP process, in which acrylates show enhanced patterning properties compared to methacrylates. The polymerization kinetics is studied with traditional tools and methods: photo Differential Scanning Calorimetry (photo-DSC), photo Fourier Transform Real Time Infrared Spectroscopy (photo-RTIR), and photo Real Time Electron Paramagnetic Spectroscopy (ESR). The microfluidic fabrication is performed via both in-house fabricated and commercially available CLiPP-specific hardware. The patterning qualities of the structures are evaluated via Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Optical Microscopy. The finished devices are used in their intended environment and evaluated in suitable manners to assess their utility. In this thesis, the development and design of specialized CLiPP fabrication machines, fabrication techniques and resulting microfluidic device features are presented anddiscussed. It is shown that the CLiPP scheme enables features such as 3 dimensional (3D) capabilities for minimized device footprints, a very large number of polymeric materials for optimized device components as well as facile integration of prefabricated components. Also, covalent layer adhesion and permanent surface modifications via living radical processes are demonstrated. These capabilities are exemplified in a number of examples that range from a 3D fluidic channel maze with separated fluidic streams and a device with independently moveable parts to a device constructed from multiple polymeric materials and devices with permanently modified surfaces, Also, batch processing capabilities are shown through fabrication of 400 identical undercut microstructures. Rapid and inexpensive design evaluations, multiple materials capabilities and the ability to seamlessly incorporate prefabricated microstructures of the CLiPP process strongly encourages continued method development. The future work that remains to be addressed is divided into two parts. First, to enable novel research devices, new polymer materials with enhanced mechanical and surface properties must be developed. Also, integration of prefabricated microstructures such as sensors and actuators has to be incorporated in a reproducible and rational manner. Secondly, to enable device mass fabrication, new automated equipment is to be developed in order to utilize the full batch processing potential of CLiPP. / QC 20101019

<p>Microfluidic devices have long been considered an ideal tool for rapid and inexpensive chemical analysis and reactions in areas ranging from point-of-care health to national security applications. However, fabricating microfluidic devices is time consuming, difficult and above all expensive. In commercial applications many thousand units need to be sold before the development costs are recovered. The problem is compounded since most microfluidic devices do not have generalized architectures which means that each end use requires a specialized design. The microfluidics marketplace can therefore be seen as being composed of 1000’s of niche markets.</p><p>To address development costs, there is clearly a need for a versatile technology that can be used for many different applications and that enables rapid testing and optimization of new designs. This work describes such a technology: Contact Liquid Photolithographic Polymerization (CLiPP).</p><p>The thesis consists of two parts: polymerization kinetics and the fabrication of polymeric microfluidic devices via CLiPP.</p><p>The photopolymerization kinetics is evaluated for a number of monomer types, and the results are used to assess their suitability in the CLiPP process. Vinyl ether/maleate photoinitiated copolymerization is examined in detail. It is shown that the polymerization kinetics is dramatically influenced by the availability of easily abstractable hydrogens The presence of α-hydrogens adjacent to the vinyl ether functional group reduces the polymerization rate and the dependence of the polymerization rate as a function of initiation rate. Also, photoinitiated acrylate and methacrylate polymerization kinetics are presented. The kinetics results in these three monomer types are used to explain the different patterning properties of the monomer functionalities used in the CLiPP process, in which acrylates show enhanced patterning properties compared to methacrylates. The polymerization kinetics is studied with traditional tools and methods: photo Differential Scanning Calorimetry (photo-DSC), photo Fourier Transform Real Time Infrared Spectroscopy (photo-RTIR), and photo Real Time Electron Paramagnetic Spectroscopy (ESR).</p><p>The microfluidic fabrication is performed via both in-house fabricated and commercially available CLiPP-specific hardware. The patterning qualities of the structures are evaluated via Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Optical Microscopy. The finished devices are used in their intended environment and evaluated in suitable manners to assess their utility.</p><p>In this thesis, the development and design of specialized CLiPP fabrication machines, fabrication techniques and resulting microfluidic device features are presented anddiscussed. It is shown that the CLiPP scheme enables features such as 3 dimensional (3D) capabilities for minimized device footprints, a very large number of polymeric materials for optimized device components as well as facile integration of prefabricated components. Also, covalent layer adhesion and permanent surface modifications via living radical processes are demonstrated. These capabilities are exemplified in a number of examples that range from a 3D fluidic channel maze with separated fluidic streams and a device with independently moveable parts to a device constructed from multiple polymeric materials and devices with permanently modified surfaces, Also, batch processing capabilities are shown through fabrication of 400 identical undercut microstructures.</p><p>Rapid and inexpensive design evaluations, multiple materials capabilities and the ability to seamlessly incorporate prefabricated microstructures of the CLiPP process strongly encourages continued method development. The future work that remains to be addressed is divided into two parts. First, to enable novel research devices, new polymer materials with enhanced mechanical and surface properties must be developed. Also, integration of prefabricated microstructures such as sensors and actuators has to be incorporated in a reproducible and rational manner. Secondly, to enable device mass fabrication, new automated equipment is to be developed in order to utilize the full batch processing potential of CLiPP.</p>

Cationic photopolymerization of multifunctional epoxides is very useful for efficient cure at room temperature and has been widely used in coatings and adhesives. Despite excellent properties of the final cured polymers, cationic photopolymerizations of epoxides have seen limited application due to slow reactions (relative to acrylates) and brittleness associated with a highly crosslinked, rigid network. To address these issues, two reaction systems were studied in this thesis: photoinitiated cationic copolymerizations of a cycloaliphatic diepoxide with epoxidized elastomers and acrylate/epoxide hybrid photopolymerizations. Oligomer/monomer structures, viscosity, compositions, and photoinitiator system were hypothesized to play important roles in controlling photopolymerizations of the epoxide-based mixtures. A fundamental understanding of the interplay between these variables for the chosen systems will provide comprehensive guidelines for the future development of photopolymerization systems comparable to the epoxide-based mixtures in this research. For diepoxide/oligomer mixtures, the observed overall enhancement in polymerization rate and ultimate conversion of the cycloaliphatic diepoxide was attributed to the activated monomer mechanism associated with hydroxyl terminal groups in the epoxidized oligomers. This enhancement increased with increasing oligomer content. The mixture viscosity influenced the initial reactivity of the diepoxide for oligomer content above 50 wt.%. Real-time consumption of internal epoxides in the oligomers was successfully determined using Raman spectroscopy. Initial reactivity and ultimate conversion of the internal epoxides decreased with increasing the diepoxide content. This trend was more pronounced for the oligomer containing low internal epoxide content. These results indicate that the reactivity of the hydroxyl groups is higher toward cationic active centers of the diepoxide than those of the internal epoxides in the oligomers. These conclusions are consistent with physical property results. The enhanced fracture toughness and impact resistance were attributed to multimodal network chain-length distribution of copolymers containing the oligomer content between 70% and 80%. For acrylate/epoxide hybrid mixtures, diacrylate oligomers significantly suppressed reactivities of cycloaliphatic mono/diepoxides, which was attributed to high mixture viscosity and highly crosslinked acrylate network. In this case, the dual photoinitiator system did not favor the epoxide reaction. Depending on the monovinyl acrylate secondary functionalities, enhanced reactivity and ultimate conversion of the diepoxide were attributed to a combined effect of a reduced viscosity and the radical-promoted cationic polymerization associated with the dual photoinitiator. The retarded and inhibited diepoxide reactivities with ether and urethane secondary groups were attributed to solvation and nucleophilicity/basicity effects, respectively. The influence of the diepoxide on the acrylate reactivity was attributed to dilution and polarity effects. In this case, high concentration of the free-radical photoinitiator is required for the dual photoinitiator system. Physical properties of hybrid polymers also varied with acrylate structures and monomer composition. Dynamic modulation methods were proposed to enhance the diepoxide reactivity and final properties in the presence of urethane acrylates.

Le sujet de thèse sur lequel je travaille depuis trois ans est l’étude et le développement des systèmes photoamorceurs pour des applications holographiques. Ce travail a lieu en collaboration avec l’équipe BMS (Bayer Material Science) de Bayer-Leverkusen (Allemagne). Mes études se sont limitées aux systèmes utilisables avec une source d’irradiation appartenant à la partie visible du spectre électromagnétique de la lumière (400 nm – 700 nm).Parmi les différents types des réactions de polymérisation, nous avons choisi la polymérisation radicalaire. L’étape cruciale dans cette réaction réside dans la génération des radicaux qui amorcent la réaction. Ces derniers sont formés par transformation, via absorption de lumière, d’un composé photosensible. La formation de ces espèces est en général en compétition avec plusieurs processus de désactivation. Les polymérisations radicalaires sont en particulier fortement inhibées par l’oxygène de l’air. Pour réduire l’effet de l’oxygène et pour avoir des conditions comparables à ceux appliqués dans l’industrie, nos échantillons ont été préparés en utilisant la technique laminée (l’échantillon est mis entre deux films de polypropylène). [...] / The subject of the thesis I have been working on for three years is the study and development of photoinitiating systems for holographic applications. This work takes place in collaboration with the BMS (Bayer Material Science) team from Bayer Leverkusen (Germany). My studies have been limited to systems used with a radiation source belonging to the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum of light (400 nm - 700 nm). Among the different types of polymerization reactions, we chose the radical polymerization. The critical step in this reaction is the generation of radicals which initiate the reaction. These are formed by transformation via absorption of light of a photosensitive compound. The formation of these species is generally in competition with several deactivation process. [...]

L’avènement des lasers impulsionnels nanosecondes à femtosecondes a permis un développement rapide de techniques permettant de sonder et/ou de transformer les matériaux à l’échelle locale par des processus d’absorption non linéaire. Ce saut technologique a vu l’émergence de nombreuses applications associées au phénomène de confinement spatial. La stéréolithographie 3D par photopolymérisation biphotonique constitue un exemple typique d’application à forte valeur ajoutée qui offre de prometteuses perspectives en terme d’écriture à l’échelle nanométrique. Un enjeu fondamental constitue alors l’élaboration de nouveaux photoamorceurs très réactifs et activables à deux photons. Dans ce contexte, ce manuscrit présente une étude photophysique et photochimique de deux séries de photoamorceurs biphotoniques ‘Donneur/Accepteur’ intégrants des stilbènes comme relais électroniques avec pré-organisation dans des structures bichromophores. Les processus primaires photoinduits, les mécanismes de photoamorçage, la photoréactivité à l’echelle locale sont décrits et étudiés méthodiquement. Enfin, le potentiel appliqué de cette nouvelle génération de photoamorceurs est mis en évidence en microfabrication multiphotonique à travers l’élaboration de structure 3D à l’échelle µm. / The advent of pulsed laser technologies has promoted the rapid growth of new emerging research domains which aim at probing and/or transforming materials at local scale using non linear absorption processes. A large range of applications takes benefit of the inherent spatial containment observed in non linear absorption processes so as to control photoreactions at nm-scale. The field of multiphoton fabrication (or stereolithography) addresses this fundamental issue and has developed rapidly so that it is no longer a rapid prototyping technology but a real manufacturing technique that is commercially available. The development of multiphoton stereolitography also requires highly reactive two-photon activable (2PA) initiators whose design and elaboration are the subject of considerable molecular engineering research. In this context, the present manuscript describes the photophysical and photochemical properties of two series of 2PA initiators. Such novel D--A structures have be designed by associating distinctive Donor and Acceptor groups into stilbene arms used as ‘electron relay’ and organized into a (multi)branched architecture. The photoinduced primary processes, the global photoinitiating mechanisms as well as the photoreactivity are described methodically. We finally demonstrate the applied potential of this new type of two-photon initiators in multiphoton stereolitography.

Ceria (cerium oxide) nanomaterials, or nanoceria, have commercial catalysis and energy storage applications. The cerium atoms on the surface of nanoceria can store or release oxygen, cycling between Ce3+ and Ce4+, and can therefore act as a therapeutic to relieve oxidative stress within living systems. Nanoceria dissolution is present in acidic environments in vivo. In order to accurately define the fate of nanoceria in vivo, nanoceria dissolution or stabilization is observed in vitro using acidic aqueous environments. Nanoceria stabilization is a known problem even during its synthesis; in fact, a carboxylic acid, citric acid, is used in many synthesis protocols. Citric acid adsorbs onto nanoceria surfaces, capping particle formation and creating stable dispersions with extended shelf lives. Nanoceria was shown to agglomerate in the presence of some carboxylic acids over a time scale of up to 30 weeks, and degraded in others, at pH 4.5 (representing that of phagolysosomes). Sixteen carboxylic acids were tested: citric, glutaric, tricarballylic, α-hydroxybutyric, β-hydroxybutyric, adipic, malic, acetic, pimelic, succinic, lactic, tartronic, isocitric, tartaric, dihydroxymalonic, and glyceric acid. Each acid was introduced as 0.11 M, into pH 4.5 iso-osmotic solutions. Controls such as ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate, and water were also tested to assess their effects on nanoceria dissolution and stabilization. To further test stability, nanoceria suspensions were subject to light and dark milieu, simulating plant environments and biological systems, respectively. Light induced nanoceria agglomeration in some, but not all ligands, and is likely to be a result of UV irradiation. Light initiates free radicals generated from the ceria nanoparticles. Some of the ligands completely dissolved the nanoceria when exposed to light. Citric and malic acids form coordination complexes with cerium on the surface of the ceria nanoparticle that can inhibit agglomeration. This approach identifies key functional groups required to prevent nanoceria agglomeration. The impact of each ligand on nanoceria was analyzed and will ultimately describe the fate of nanoceria in vivo. In addition, simulated biological fluid (SBF) exposure can change nanoceria’s surface properties and biological activity. The citrate-coated nanoceria physicochemical properties such as size, morphology, crystallinity, surface elemental composition, and charge were determined before and after exposure to simulated lung, gastric, and intestinal fluids. SBF exposure resulted in either loss or overcoating of nanoceria’s surface citrate by some of the SBF components, greater nanoceria agglomeration, and small changes in the zeta potential. Nanocomposites are comprised of a polymer matrix embedded with nanoparticles. These nanoparticles can alter material and optical properties of the polymer. SR-399 (dipentaerythritol pentaacrylate) is a fast cure, low skin irritant monomer that contains five carbon-carbon double bonds (C=C). It is a hard, flexible polymer, and also resistant to abrasion. It can be used as a sealant, binder, coating, and as a paint additive. In this case, metal oxide nanoparticles were added to the monomer prior to polymerization. Titania nanoparticles are known to absorb UV light due to their photocatalytic nature. Titania nanoparticles were chosen due to their high stability, non-toxicity, and are relatively quick, easy, and inexpensive to manufacture. Channels in thin monomer films were created using a ferrofluid manipulated by magnetic fields. The mechanical properties of a microfluidic device by rapid photopolymerization is dependent on the crosslinking gradient observed throughout the depth of the film. Quantitative information regarding the degree of polymerization of thin film polymers polymerized by free radical polymerization through the application of UV light is crucial to estimate material properties. In general, less cure leads to more flexibility, and more cure leads to brittleness. The objective was to quantify the degree of polymerization to approximate the C=C concentration and directly relate it to the mechanical properties of the polymer. Polymerization of C=C groups was conducted using a photoinitiator and an UV light source from one surface of a thin film of a multifunctional monomer. The C=C fraction in the film was found to vary with film depth and UV light intensity. The extents of conversion and crosslinking estimates were compared to local mechanical moduli and optical properties. A mathematical model linking the mechanical properties to the degree of polymerization, C=C composition, as a function of film depth and light intensity was then developed. For a given amount of light energy, one can predict the hardness and modulus of elasticity. The correlation between the photopolymerization and the mechanical properties can be used to optimize the mechanical properties of thin films within the manufacturing and energy constraints, and should be scalable to other multifunctional monomer systems.

Ce travail de thèse aborde l’étude mécanistique de systèmes photoamorceurs complexes et la modélisation cinétique du processus de photopolymérisation. Dans un premier temps, le mécanisme photochimique d’un système combinant le [Ru(bpy)3]2+ et des agents RAFT pour l’amorçage et le contrôle d’un processus radicalaire a été étudié. Un transfert d’énergie a été clairement démontré, contredisant le mécanisme de transfert d’électron généralement proposé. Un système photoamorceur à 3 composants bicyclique dual ITX/IOD+/RSH a ensuite été considéré pour la synthèse de matériaux hybrides organiques-inorganiques. Sous excitation lumineuse, ce système produit simultanément des radicaux et des protons, permettant d’amorcer, respectivement, des processus de polymérisation radicalaire et sol-gel. Dans un second temps, l’interdépendance entre les cinétiques de photopolymérisation et l’évolution des propriétés du milieu réactionnel a été étudiée par le biais du développement d’un modèle cinétique permettant la simulation de l’intégralité du processus de photopolymérisation. Des systèmes photoamorceurs de complexité croissante ont été inclus afin d’étudier les spécificités de leurs cinétiques. Un système de type I a permis de mettre en évidence les modes de terminaison majoritaires et leur évolution au cours de la synthèse des polymères, tandis que le rôle non négligeable du transfert d’électron inverse a été mis en exergue pour des systèmes photoamorceurs de type II. La fonction d’agent de terminaison d’un photoproduit issu d’un colorant cationique, ainsi que certaines spécificités des systèmes photocycliques à 3 composants, ont été finalement étudiés grâce à la modélisation. / This thesis deals with the mechanistic study of complex photoinitiating systems and the kinetic modeling of the photopolymerization process. In a first time, the photochemical mechanism of a system combining [Ru(bpy)3]2+ and RAFT agents for the initiation and control of a radical process has been studied. An energy transfer has been clearly demonstrated, contradicting the electron transfer mechanism generally proposed. A dual bicyclic three-component photoinitiating system ITX/IOD+/RSH has been considered for the synthesis of organic-inorganic hybrid materials. Under light exposure, this system produces simultaneously radicals and protons, enabling the initiation of a radical polymerization and a sol-gel process, respectively. In a second time, interdependence between photopolymerization kinetics and evolution of the medium’s properties has been studied, through developing a kinetic model for the simulation of the whole photopolymerization process. Photoinitiating systems of growing complexity have been included in order to study specificities of their kinetics. A type-I system has shown major termination modes and their evolution during the polymer synthesis, while the non-negligible role of back electron transfer has been highlighted for type-II photoinitiating systems. Role of terminating agent of a photoproduct based on a cationic dye, as well as some specificities of photocyclic three-component systems, have been finally studied with the model.

Les procédés de photopolymérisation connaissent un développement important avec des applications considérables dans le milieu industriel en raison de ses avantages économiques et écologiques. Les réactions de photopolymérisation sont très représentées, elles reposent sur l’utilisation d’un composé ou d'un système photosensible sous irradiation, générant des espèces réactives capables d’amorcer la polymérisation et de réagir avec le monomère. Le principal objectif de ce travail de thèse consiste à développer des molécules efficaces comme photoamorceurs (PA) pour la photopolymérisation radicalaire (FRP) d’une part et la photopolymérisation cationique (CP) ou la photopolymérisation cationique sensibilisée par les radicaux (FRPCP) d’autre part. Nous nous sommes intéressés à des systèmes amorceurs hautes performances absorbant fortement dans le domaine du visible et permettant l’utilisation de lampes non nocives et à faible consommation d'énergie : les diodes électroluminescentes (LED). Ainsi, un procédé original portant sur la combinaison de la photopolymérisation radicalaire et la photopolymérisation cationique en une seule étape a été examiné. Cette approche a fait appel à la synthèse de réseaux interpénétrés de polymères (RIP) comportant les propriétés spécifiques de chaque polymère. Les efforts ont été consacrés au développement de nouveaux composés avec de nouvelles structures chimiques et d’excellentes propriétés d’absorption de lumière avec de coefficients d’extinctions molaires très élevés.Des systèmes construits sur l’utilisation de différentes structures comme photoamorceurs ont pu être mis au point dans le cadre de cette thèse. La possibilité d’utiliser des colorants présentant un caractère push-pull, ou des colorants étant caractérisés par une structure polyène ou une structure polyaromatique a pu être considérée. Egalement, des structures à base de xanthène sensibles dans le domaine proche visible ont pu être proposées. De plus, ce travail a permis d’étudier de nouveaux systèmes photoamorceurs à base de structures minérales telles que les polyoxométallates ou les pérovskites. Ainsi, la possibilité de proposer de nouveaux sels d’iodonium à base de coumarine a pu être démontrée. Des meilleures performances ont été atteintes en utilisant des systèmes photoamorceurs à deux composants (PA/Ph2I+) ou à trois composants (PA/Ph2I+/additif) dans des conditions d’irradiation douce. Afin d’étudier et caractériser ces photoamorceurs, la cinétique de la réaction de photopolymérisation a été suivie par spectroscopie infrarouge à transformée de Fourier (RT-FTIR). Les radicaux générés ont été détectés par résonance paramagnétique électronique (RPE). La photolyse laser éclair (LFP) a été utilisée comme technique complémentaire pour étudier l’efficacité et la réactivité de radicaux générés. / The photopolymerization reaction is used in an increasing number of industrial applications because of the remarkable performance of the process. The photopolymerization reactions require the presence of photosensitive compounds. These latter can absorb light and participate in the photoinitiation through the generation of reactive species. The main objective of this PHD was to develop efficient molecules as photoinitiators (PI) for the free radical photopolymerization (FRP), the cationic photopolymerization (CP) and the free radical promoted cationic photopolymerization (FRPCP). We were interested in new high performance photoinitiating systems (PISs) exhibiting excellent light absorption properties (especially in the visible wavelength range). The photopolymerization must be carried out under soft irradiation conditions (non harmful lamps, low energy consumption and low intensity sources: light-emitting diodes LED). Thus, a novel method involving concomitant radical/cationic photopolymerization in one step was examined. This approach involves the synthesis of interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs) comprising the specific properties of each polymer. The efforts have been devoted to the development of new compounds with new chemical structures and excellent light absorption properties with high molar extinctions coefficients.Many PISs based on different photoinitiators structures have been developed in this work. The possibility to use dyes having a push-pull character, or dyes being characterized by a polyene or polyaromatic structures were considered. Also, originals xanthenes derivatives sensitive in the visible region have been proposed. In particular, this work has enabled the study of new PISs based on inorganic structures such as polyoxometalates and perovskites. Thus, the possibility to propose new iodonium salts based coumarin could be demonstrated. The best performance was achieved using two-components (PI/Ph2I+) or three-components (PI /Ph2I+/additive) photoinitiating systems under soft irradiation conditions. The kinetics of photopolymerization were evaluated using real time FTIR spectroscopy. The generated radicals were observed using the electron spin resonance (ESR) technique. The laser flash photolysis (LFP) was used as a complementary technique to study the efficiency and the reactivity of radicals generated.