A indoleamina 2,3-dioxigenase (IDO) é uma enzima que cataboliza o aminoácido triptofano, levando à inibição da proliferação de linfócitos T, seja pela exaustão desse aminoácido no ambiente, ou pela indução via catabólitos induzindo-os a apoptose. Em mamíferos, esta enzima atua em diversas condições do organismo como a gestação, infecções, inflamações crônicas, transplantes e tumores, sendo reconhecida como uma autêntica reguladora imunológica. Estudos recentes identificaram a presença de moléculas homólogas a IDO em espécies filogeneticamente mais antigas que os mamíferos placentados, sendo que o papel da IDO primitiva não está totalmente elucidada. Sabe-se que em fungos e bactérias a IDO limita-se ao metabolismo do triptofano para obtenção de energia e que em vertebrados inferiores sua função ainda não é bem esclarecida. Desta forma, este estudo teve por objetivo averiguar a presença da IDO em células sanguíneas e órgãos hematopoiéticos de trutas arco-íris, colaborando para o estudo filogenético do sistema imune nos vertebrados, particularmente dos peixes. A expressão de IDO foi observada em todos os órgãos hematopoiéticos estudados incluindo os leucócitos e também foi observada marcação positiva para a enzima em pequenos vasos sanguíneos do rim cefálico, baço e fígado. Os resultados obtidos, apresentando marcações positivas da IDO restritas em leucócitos e tecidos hematopoiéticos de trutas arco-íris, poderiam significar a primeira evidência de que a IDO, à semelhança do que ocorre nos mamíferos, possa estar relacionada ao sistema imunológico nesta espécie. / The indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is an enzyme that catabolizes the amino acid tryptophan, leading to inhibition of T lymphocyte proliferation by exhaustion of this amino acid in the environment, or by induction via the catabolites inducing apoptosis. In mammals, this enzyme acts on various conditions such as pregnancy, infections, chronic inflammation, transplantation and tumors, being recognized as an authentic immune regulator. Recent studies have identified the presence of homologous IDO in older phylogenetically related species molecules, the placental mammals, and the role of early IDO is not fully elucidated, it is known that in fungi and bacteria the role of IDO is limited to tryptophan metabolism for energy, and is function in lower vertebrates is still not well understood. This study aims to investigate the presence of IDO in peripheral blood cells and hematopoietic organs of rainbow trout, thereby contributing to the phylogenetic study of the immune system in vertebrates, particularly in fish. The expression of IDO was observed in the inner region of small blood vessels in the head kidney, spleen, liver and peripheral blood cells, mainly in monocytes and lymphocytes. The restricted localized expression of IDO in these tissues and cells, as occurred in mammals, may suggest a first evidence for a putative role of this enzyme in the immune system in rainbow trout.

Introduction: RNA viruses are economically important pathogens of fish, and among these viruses, infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) is of particular concern for the aquaculture industry, especially for farmed rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). This non-enveloped aquatic virus, which was first isolated in the UK in 1971, belongs to the family of Birnaviridae and has a bi-segmented dsRNA genome of about 6kb. IPNV is classified in 6 genogroups with correspondence to 10 known serotypes and an additional proposed genogroup of marine aquabirnaviruses (MABV). IPNV causes high mortality in fry and a reduced mortality in adult fish, respectively. Fish, which survive, can become carriers and this can lead to a clinical outbreak by releasing infective material into water or by vertical transmission via oocytes, milt and seminal fluids. Methods: This project aimed at determining the phylogeny and genomic changes of IPNV in Scotland by whole genome sequence analysis of IPNV isolates (diagnostic TCID50 supernatants) spanning 3 decades since 1982, using next generation sequencing technology. Viral RNA of IPNV culture supernatant (CHSE-214 and TO cell culture) was processed for next generation sequencing on an Illumina MiSeq platform. Library preparation was performed using the Nextera XT DNA Library Kit, prior to sequencing according to the manufacturer's MiSeq Reagent Kit v3 (150cycles) protocol. To optimize whole genome next generation sequencing for IPNV, we compared two RNA processing protocols, the Glasgow (GLAP) and the Goettingen protocol (GOEP) with focus on missing terminal nucleotides after a de novo genome assembly. Sequences were used to determine the phylogeny and selection pressure on the genome as well as a possible virus-host adaptation. Results: The results showed that both protocols were able to give full length genomes as well as genomes with missing terminal nucleotides. The phylogenetic analysis of 57 sequenced IPVN isolates shows that 78.95 % of the isolates group within genogroup V, which includes serogroup Sp and 5.26 % within genogroup I which includes serogroup Ja. Segment A of 15.79 % of the isolate grouped within genogroup III, which includes serotype Ca1 and Te but only 7.02 % of the segment B isolates grouped in the genogroup III. The remaining 8.77 % of segment B groups within genogroup II, containing the Ab serotype. Previous research has shown that residue substitutions at positions 217 and 221 in the major capsid protein VP2 have an impact on the virulence of the virus, leading to different virulence types: virulent (T217, A221), low virulence (P217, A221), avirulent (T217, T221) and persistent (P217, T221). Whole genome sequence results show that 58.93 % of the sequenced isolates belong to the persistent, 32.14 % to the low virulent type, only one isolate was of a virulent type and 7.15 % had not virulence assigned amino acid compositions in positions 217 and 221. The selection pressure analysis showed that especially VP2 is experiencing selection pressure in the variable region. In the VP1 protein we see two sites under positive selection pressure within specific motifs. VP5 showed positive selected sites mostly within the truncated region of the protein. Other proteins showed no particular interesting sites of selection. The codon adaptation analysis showed highest adaptation index for VP2. Besides VP5, which had an CAI index below one, therefore showing negative adaptation, other IPNV proteins had an CAI of barely above the value of 1. The dinucleotide abundance, focussing on CpG, showed that CpG is underrepresented in segment A and B. Discussion Phylogenetic analysis of the sequenced IPNV strains shows separate clustering of different genogroups. Genetic reassortment is observed in segment B showing a grouping within genogroup III and II although the segment A of these isolates was grouping exclusively within III. We found that over 50 % of the isolates belong to the persistent and over 30 % to the low virulent type, assuming that due to not sterilising vaccination these types were selected in the vaccinated population. The results from the CAI calculations indicate an adaptation of IPNV to its host. Together with the findings that CpG is underrepresented in IPNV it suggests that this leads to an immune escape. Especially since the selection pressure analysis showed positive selection in VP2 within the virulence determination sites of the protein, indicating that IPNV "tries" to downregulate immune recognition. The prevalence of mostly persistent type of isolates indicates together with the assumption of adaptation and immune escape that IPNV is evolving with the host in order to ensure survival.

L’utilisation excessive de pesticides engendre des pollutions et des dégradations importantes de l’environnement y compris sur les écosystèmes aquatiques. L’activité viticole ne fait pas exception à cette règle, et c’est pour cette raison que ce travail de thèse s’est intéressé aux réponses adaptatives ou délétères aux premiers stades de vie de poissons exposés à trois produits phytosanitaires utilisés en viticulture ainsi qu’à leur mélange et à des échantillons environnementaux. La thèse s’intéresse aux stades précoces de développement de la truite arc-en-ciel, mais également à la lignée cellulaire de foie de truite RTL-W1. Les embryons de truite ont été exposés au cuivre, au glyphosate et au chlorpyrifos seuls ou en mélange. Une autre partie de ce travail a consisté à étudier les effets toxiques des échantillons environnementaux d’eau et de sédiment provenant d’un cours d’eau, La Livenne, à proximité de parcelles viticoles. Toutes les expériences ont été faites en conditions contrôlées de laboratoire. Les réponses induites par ces expositions ont été mesurées à différents niveaux d’organisation biologique : au niveau moléculaire, phénotypique et comportemental pour l’étude in vivo (larves de la truite arc-en-ciel) ; et l’analyse des effets cytotoxiques de l’induction des espèces réactives de l’oxygène (ROS) et des dommages à l’ADN pour l’étude in vitro (lignée RTL-W1). Les résultats de ce travail ont montré que l’exposition aux pesticides individuels, ou en mélange, chez les larves de truites arc-en-ciel n’a pas produit d’effets létaux aux concentrations testés. En revanche, ces substances ont provoqués différents effets sub-létaux, selon le composé et les concentrations étudiés, dont des effets tératogènes, des perturbations du comportement natatoire, des effets génotoxiques et l’expression différentielle de gènes cibles. Le cuivre s’est avéré le plus toxique provoquant un échec d’éclosion important. Des effets cytotoxiques et une production d’espèces réactives de l’oxygène (ERO) ont été observés sur cellules de truite exposées à des extraits d’eau de rivière. Par ailleurs, des effets comportementaux ont été observés sur les larves de truites exposées pendant 48 h à des sédiments et de l’eau de la Livenne. En conclusion, ces travaux de thèse ont mis en évidence des effets sub-létaux sur les cellules et les stades précoces de développement de truite arc-en-ciel exposés à des concentrations environnementales de pesticides utilisés en viticulture. / The excessive use of pesticides generates significant pollution and degradation of the environment, including aquatic ecosystems. The viticultural activity is not an exception for this rule, and this is why the aim of this work is to study the adaptive or deleterious responses in the early life stages of fish exposed to three phytosanitary products used in viticulture as well as to their mixture and environmental samples. The thesis focuses on the early stages of development of rainbow trout, but also on the trout liver cell line RTL-W1. Trout embryos were exposed to copper, glyphosate and chlorpyrifos alone or as a mixture. Another part of this work consisted in studying the toxic effects of environmental samples of water and sediment coming from a river, La Livenne, close to vineyard plots. All experiments were done under controlled laboratory conditions. The responses induced by these exposures were measured at different levels of biological organization: at the molecular, phenotypic and behavioral level for the in vivo study (rainbow trout larvae); and the analysis of cytotoxic effects and induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and DNA damage for the in vitro study (RTL-W1 line). The results of this work showed that exposure to individual or mixed pesticides in rainbow trout larvae did not produce lethal effects at the tested concentrations. In contrast, these substances caused different sub-lethal effects, depending on the compound and concentrations studied, including teratogenic effects, swim behavior disturbances, genotoxic effects, and differential expression of target genes. Copper was found to be the most toxic causing a major hatching failure. Cytotoxic effects and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were observed on trout cells exposed to river water extracts. In addition, behavioral effects were observed on trout larvae exposed for 48 h to sediments and Livenne water. In conclusion, these thesis studies revealed sub-lethal effects on cells and early stages of development of rainbow trout exposed to environmental concentrations of pesticides.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Zoology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

Species of Argulus are macro-, ecto-parasites known to infect a wide variety of fish, but in the UK mainly cause problems in rainbow (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brown trout (Salmo trutta). Argulus foliaceus is estimated to have caused problems in over 25% of stillwater trout fisheries in the UK. While A. foliaceus does not usually cause high levels of mortality, the parasite affects fish welfare, and also makes fish harder to catch due to morbidity and reduced appetite. This can cause severe economic problems for the fishery, resulting in reduced angler attendance due to poor capture rates and the reduced aesthetic appearance of fish; in the worst-case scenario this can result in the closure of the fishery. Current methods of control include chemical treatment with chemotherapeutant emamectin benzoate (Slice), physical intervention with egg-laying boards which are removed periodically and cleaned in order to reduce the number of parasites hatching into the environment, and the complete draining and liming of the lake to remove all free-living and egg stages of the parasite. While these treatments have all been shown to reduce parasite numbers, none are known to have resulted in permament eradication of the parasite. There is evidence to suggest that A. foliaceus will eventually develop resistance to Slice - the only currently available chemical treatment against the infection - and egg-laying boards and the draining and liming of the lake are both time- and labour-intensive. Previous studies have shown that slow fish turnover is a risk factor with respect to A. foliaceus infections, and with a wide variety of stocking practices occurring in the UK one of the first aims of this project was to determine their impact on the host-parasite dynamics. Mathematical models provide a cost-effective way of examining the impact of such practices, and after a literature review (chapter one), in chapter two a three-compartment mathematical model was adapted for use in the A. foliaceus-trout system. Four generalised stocking methods were then incorporated and analysed, and a minimum threshold host density was found to be necessary to sustain the parasite. Including a function which reduced the capture rate as the parasite burden increased allowed the parasite to survive at a lower host density, as susceptible fish were removed from the water at a slower rate, and attached parasites also remained in the water for longer. This resulted in hysteresis in the model, as the invasion threshold for the parasite remained the same, but once established the parasite became harder to eradicate, requiring significant reductions in the host density. In chapter three the model was further developed in order to improve its biological real- ism. Several features were added and these included: natural host mortalities, a separate compartment for the parasite egg population, and parasite survival after the natural or parasite-induced mortality of its host. In chapter four seasonality was added by incorporating temperature-dependent egg-laying rates and an over-wintering period during which the parasite was unable to reproduce. The model was then fit to the available data, and estimates for the rate of parasite-induced host mortalities and the parasite’s rate of attachment to a host were found. In chapter five we returned to stocking methods, this time looking at the frequency and timing of stocking events and the impact of imposing a rod limit (whereby anglers are only permitted to capture four fish per visit); it was concluded that while current guidelines suggest that very frequent trickle stocking is recommended when dealing with Argulus spp. infections, monthly stocking does not appear to worsen the infection, and if the fish capture rate is high then less-frequent stocking may also be permissable - particularly if stocking occurs towards the end of the year when the parasite is no longer active. This practice may, however, be detrimental to the fishery due to low fish densities in the summer months. In chapter six treatment with Slice was included in the model, and it was demonstrated that with constant treatment, and in the absence of reservoir hosts and a withdrawal period from the drug prior to stocking treated fish into the fishery, the parasite was eradicated. Under current veterinary cascade guidelines, however, trout are required to undergo a withdrawal period of 500 degree days prior to being made available for human consumption. When this was included in the model the drug still decreased parasite abundance, but did not eradicate it - this is in agreement with results reported by communications with fishery managers currently treating fish with Slice. A reduction in the withdrawal period of 25% was shown to further decrease parasite abundance, but still did not result in parasite extinction. As constant treatment with Slice is not advisable due to the potential for resistance build-up, we then sought to find time at which to apply a single treatment of Slice, and found that this was in August when the temperature was highest and the parasite was reproducing and attaching to hosts quickly. Egg-laying boards were also incorporated into the model and similarly to findings by Fenton et al. [11] the success of this treatment was mostly dependent on the proportion of eggs being laid on the boards (as opposed to natural substrates). In contrast with the A. coregoni system, however, the boards would have to be cleaned and replaced more frequently that once per year, as several cohorts of A. foliaceus emerge during a single year.

Το σύστημα του Συμπληρώματος απαρτίζεται από μια ομάδα πρωτεϊνών του πλάσματος και κυτταρικών υποδοχέων που παίζουν σημαντικό ρόλο στην άμυνα του ξενιστή μέσω της αλληλεπίδρασής τους τόσο με συστατικά της φυσικής, όσο και της προσαρμοστικής ανοσίας. Παράλληλα, μια ομάδα από ρυθμιστικές πρωτεΐνες του πλάσματος και της κυτταρικής μεμβράνης προστατεύει τα κύτταρα του ξενιστή από την αυτόλογη δράση του Συμπληρώματος. Η σύνθεση του τελικού λυτικού συμπλόκου MAC, που οδηγεί σε κυτταρόλυση, ρυθμίζεται από τις ρυθμιστικές πρωτεΐνες : CD59, vitronectin και clusterin. Μέχρι σήμερα οι ρυθμιστικές πρωτεΐνες της λυτικής οδού του Συμλπηρώματος έχουν ελάχιστα χαρακτηριστεί σε σπονδυλωτά πέραν των θηλαστικών. Οι οστεϊχθύες αποτελούν ένα σημαντικό μοντέλο, καθώς είναι οι μόνοι οργανισμοί που εμφανίζουν ένα πλήρως αναπτυγμένο και διευρυμένο σύστημα συμπληρώματος, μέσω διπλασιασμού πολλών γονιδίων του Συμπληρώματος. Προκειμένου να μελετηθεί η παρουσία και η φυλογενετική εξέλιξη του ρυθμιστικού μορίου της clusterin, το οποίο παρεμποδίζει την πρόσδεση του συμπλόκου C5b-7 στην μεμβράνη του κυττάρου-στόχου, με αποτέλεσμα την αναστολή της κυτταρόλυσης, έγινε κλωνοποίηση και χαρακτηρισμός του γονιδίου της clusterin στην ιριδίζουσα πέστροφα (Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus). Απομονώθηκαν δύο ισομορφές του γονιδίου της clusterin, clusterin-1 (TCLU-1) και clusterin-2 (TCLU-2) από cDNA βιβλιοθήκη ήπατος πέστροφας, με χρήση ειδικών ολιγονουκλεοτιδίων. Οι προκύπτουσες αμινοξικές αλληλουχίες των ισομορφών clusterin-1 και clusterin-2 παρουσιάζουν 89% ταυτοσημία μεταξύ τους, καθώς και 40 και 38% ταυτοσημία με την clusterin του ανθρώπου, αντίστοιχα. Η μοριακή δομή των συναγομένων πρωτεϊνών αντιστοιχεί στην α΄ αλυσίδα της clusterin και ομοιάζει με εκείνη των θηλαστικών. Γονιδιωματικοί κλώνοι απομονώθηκαν και για τις δύο ισομορφές και μελετήθηκε η οργάνωση εξωνίων-εσωνίων των αντίστοιχων γονιδίων. Η οργάνωση των γονιδίων clusterin-1 και clusterin-2, με τα μέχρι στιγμής δεδομένα, δείχνει αντιστοιχία εξωνίων - εσωνίων με το γονίδιο της clusterin του ανθρώπου, στην περιοχή ομολογίας τους. Ως προς το μέγεθος, τα αντίστοιχα εξώνια φαίνονται συντηρημένα, ενώ τα εσώνια ποικίλουν, εμφανίζοντας μικρότερο μέγεθος συγκριτικά με εκείνα της clusterin του ανθρώπου. Ανάλυση κατά Southern έδειξε ότι η clusterin απαντάται σε δύο τουλάχιστον αντίγραφα στο γονιδίωμα της πέστροφας. Τα γονίδια clusterin-1 και clusterin-2 εμφανίζουν διαφορική έκφραση στο επίπεδο του mRNA σε διάφορους ιστούς πέστροφας, όπως διαπιστώθηκε με RT-PCR. Παρατηρήθηκαν υψηλά επίπεδα mRNA του γονιδίου TCLU-1 στο ήπαρ και στο σπλήνα, ενώ η έκφραση του γονιδίου TCLU-2 παρατηρήθηκε αυξημένη στην καρδιά και στο έντερο, χαμηλή στο ήπαρ και στο σπλήνα δεν ανιχνεύτηκε. Τέλος, η φυλογενετική ανάλυση των πρωτεϊνών της clusterin από διάφορους οργανισμούς εμφάνισε την TCLU-1 να ομαδοποιείται με την TCLU-2, ενώ η όλη υποομάδα προηγείται φυλογενετικά των ορθόλογων πρωτεϊνών του pufferfish και του zebrafish και αυτές των ορθόλογων των άλλων οργανισμών που αναλύθηκαν. Συμπερασματικά, το γονίδιο της clusterin ανιχνεύεται στην ιριδίζουσα πέστροφα, σε δύο τουλάχιστον ισομορφές και παρουσιάζει ομολογία με την clusterin του ανθρώπου, τόσο στο επίπεδο οργάνωσης του γονιδίου, όσο και στο επίπεδο της αμινοξικής αλληλουχίας και της προκύπτουσας δομής. Η παρουσία ισομορφών από εναλλακτικό μάτισμα που ισχύει στην clusterin του άνθρωπου δεν έγινε δυνατόν να πιστοποιηθεί. / The complement system consists of a group of plasma proteins and cell receptors that play a critical role in host defense, by interacting with components of both innate and adaptive immunity. Α group of plasma and cell membrane regulatory proteins protects the host cells from the autologous complement activation. The conformation of the lytic complex MAC, which results to the cytolysis, is regulated by the regulatory proteins: CD59, clusterin και vitronectin. Up to date, the regulatory proteins of MAC complex are not well characterized in low vertebrates. Bony fish represent an attractive model for studies on complement system, as they are, the only organisms that reveal a completely developed and extended system, via duplication and functional differentiation of many genes of the complement system. In order to elucidate the presence and the evolution of the clusterin regulatory molecule, which impedes the binding of C5b-7 complex to the membrane of the target cell, inhibiting cytolysis, we report here the cloning and characterization of the clusterin gene in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus). Two isoforms of clusterin gene, clusterin-1 (TCLU-1) and clusterin-2 (TCLU-2) were isolated from a trout liver cDNA library, by PCR using specific oligonoucleotides. The deduced amino-acid sequences of the isoforms TCLU-1 and TCLU-2 show 89% identity to each other, as well as 40 and 38% identity to human clusterin, respectively. The domain structure of the deduced proteins corresponds to the α΄ chain of clusterin and resembles to that of mammalian. Genomic clones were isolated for the two isoforms and intron-exon organization of corresponding genes was clarified. The organization of the clusterin genes TCLU-1 and TCLU-2, as the partial data have shown, is in line with the intron-exon organization of the human clusterin gene, at their homology region. Regarding the length, the corresponding exons seem to be conserved, but the introns in trout clusterin genes are shorter than human clusterin. Southern blot analysis has shown that clusterin can be found as two copies at least, in the trout genome. Also, the genes TCLU-1 and TCLU-2 reveal differential expression, at mRNA level, among several trout tissues, as it was found out by RT-PCR analysis. High levels of TCLU-1 mRNA are detected in liver and spleen. On the other hand, TCLU-2 is expressed mainly in heart and intestine, while is not detected any expression in spleen. Finally, the phylogenetic analysis of the clusterin proteins from various organisms, showed grouping of TCLU-1 and TCLU-2, while this subgroup precedes evolutionary the clusterin orthologs of pufferfish, zebrafish and the other examined organisms, afterwards. Conclusively, the clusterin gene in rainbow trout is detected as two isoforms and shows homology with human clusterin, not only at the level of gene organization, but also at the level of amino-acid sequence and domain architecture. The alternative splicing of human clusterin was not able to be certified in trout.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Zoology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005

The effect of inclusion rate of pea meal (PM), pea protein concentrate (PPC), soybean meal (SBM), soy protein concentrate (SPC), canola meal (CM) and canola protein concentrate (CPC) in salmonid diets was determined through six corresponding meta-analyses of all data available in the literature for these six feed ingredients, which was followed by weighted regression analysis. Increasing dietary inclusion levels of SBM, SPC, CM and CPC reduced specific growth rate (SGR). Regression analysis determined all of these relationships to be linear declines in SGR (P < 0.05). Inclusion levels of PM or PPC did not influence salmonid SGR (P > 0.05). These results showed that the influence plant proteins have on salmonid SGR is dependent on ingredient type and inclusion level. PM, PPC, SBM, SPC, CM an aqueous-extracted CPC and a high phytate CPC (PCPC) were analyzed for chemical nutrient (proximate, amino acid and phosphorus analysis) and antinutrient composition and total tract digestibility (two separate digestibility trials) in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). The digestibility of proximate chemical components and amino acids were significantly higher for the soy products than the pea products. These digestibilities were also significantly higher in protein concentrates than in plant meals. Dry matter and gross energy digestibility was higher in CPC than in CM (P < 0.05). Phosphorus digestibility was higher in CPC-fed fish than in CM-fed fish (P < 0.05), which is likely due to the fact that CPC did not contain phytic acid. Six consecutive growth studies (one trial per test ingredient) were conducted over a 361-day period to determine the effects of feeding increasing inclusion rates of PM, PPC, SBM, SPC, CM and CPC on the growth performance of rainbow trout. Diets were formulated based on the digestible nutrient content of all ingredients as determined in the previously conducted digestibility trials, to contain 0, 75, 150, 225 or 300 g/kg of each test ingredient. All diets were nutritionally equal and contained 17.6 MJ/kg digestible energy, 386.2 g/kg digestible crude protein and were balanced for digestible essential amino acids to meet or exceed the requirements of rainbow trout. Linear and quadratic analysis was conducted on the experimental data. There were no significant regressions resulting from feeding PM, SPC or CPC at 0-300 g/kg for average daily feed intake (ADFI), specific growth rate (SGR), feed conversion ratio (FCR) or protein efficiency ratio (PER). A positive relationship was associated between PPC inclusion and ADFI (P < 0.05). There was a significantly negative quadratic equation associated with the inclusion level of SBM on SGR and FCR and significantly negative linear and quadratic equations for PER. There were significantly negative linear relationships between the inclusion rate of CM and the SGR, FCR and PER of rainbow trout (P < 0.05). Growth trial results suggest at inclusion levels up to 300 g/kg, PM, PPC, SPC and CPC are feasible plant-based fish meal replacements with predictable growth effects, provided the nutritional constraints set in this experiment are followed. The results of these growth experiments were further analyzed using structural equation modeling to determine the relationship between ANF in the six ingredients and ADFI and SGR, which were transformed (tSGR and tADFI, respectively) to enable comparisons between experiments. All possible models between ingredient ANF (starch, phytic acid, glucosinolates, tannins, isoflavones, total NSP, soluble NSP, insoluble NSP and saponins) and ADFI and SGR were calculated. The model with the highest likelihood, as determined by the Akaike Information Criteria0, contained 29 parameters and six degrees of freedom. tADFI positively influenced tSGR. Glucosinolates, saponins, and phytates had a significantly negative impact on tADFI, whereas tannins had a significantly positive impact. The presence of saponins in the diet resulted in a decrease in tSGR. This structural equation model had significant correlations between all ANF, with the exception of phytates and saponins. Future applications of this work will be to develop a nutritional model for optimal inclusion of plant-based feed ingredients in rainbow trout diets, based on their ANF content, which may improve the accuracy of diet formulation and growth prediction.

Selenium (Se) is an essential element, toxic at concentrations only slightly above those required. It can become detrimental to fish health when available in excess in the aquatic environment. This study examined the effects of Se on adult female rainbow trout, brook trout, and cutthroat trout fed Se-methionine for five months, and on their larvae. Differences between fish species and between tissues were observed in the accumulation of Se in adults, and dose-dependent effects of Se on plasma thyroid hormone concentrations in brook trout, gonad size in all three species, and indicators of oxidative stress in rainbow trout and cutthroat trout, were detected. Survival of larvae and swim-up success decreased with increasing egg Se concentrations in rainbow trout and cutthroat trout, however, the same effects were not observed in brook trout. Data from this study provide new evidence for species-specific Se accumulation and toxicity in salmonid fish. / xi, 123 leaves : ill. ; 29 cm

Thesis (Ph.D. (Zoology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005