Η παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία πραγματοποιήθηκε στο εργαστήριο παρασκευής και μηχανικών ιδιοτήτων συνθέτων υλικών στο ΙΤΕ/ΙΕΧΜΗ στη πάτρα. Το κύριο μέρος της παρούσης μεταπτυχιακής εργασίας είναι η μεταφορά μονού στρώματος γραφενίου σε υποστρώματα PDMS και ο χαρακτηρισμός του μέσω της φασματοσκοπίας Raman καθώς επίσης και η μελέτη της αλληλεπίδρασης του γραφενίου με το υπόστρωμα. Και τέλος, εξίσου σημαντικό μέρος αποτελεί η θερμομηχανική μελέτη του μονοστρωματικού γραφενίου, το οποίο έχει αναπτυχθεί στην επιφάνεια του χαλκού. Πιο αναλυτικά, το πρώτο κεφάλαιο της διπλωματικής εργασίας αποτελεί μια πρώτη εισαγωγή στο γραφένιο, όπου απαντά σε διάφορα ερωτήματα όπως, πως ανακαλύφθηκε, τι είναι, τι ιδιότητες έχει, πως παρασκευάζεται, ποία είναι η δομή του (κρυσταλλική, ηλεκτρονική) και σε πολλά άλλα. Στη συνέχεια, στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο περιγράφονται οι πειραματικές τεχνικές, οι φασματοσκοπικές μέθοδοι καθώς και οι πειραματικές διατάξεις που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν κατά την εκπόνηση της διατριβής. Για τον χαρακτηρισμό και την μελέτη του γραφενίου πάνω σε διάφορα υποστρώματα (PDMS, PMMA, Si/SiO2, χαλκού) χρησιμοποιούνται, κυρίως, η φασματοσκοπία Raman, αλλά και η οπτική μικροσκοπία, η ηλεκτρονική μικροσκοπία σάρωσης (SEM) και η διάταξη θέρμανσης-ψύξης (THMS600) της εταιρίας Linkam. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο περιγράφονται οι διαδικασίες παρασκευής των προς μελέτη δοκιμίων. Αρχικά αναλύουμε τον τρόπο με τον οποίο παρασκευάσαμε δοκίμια PDMS (πoλυδιμέθυλο σιλοξάνιο). Η πρώτη μέθοδος περιγράφει τον τρόπο με τον οποίο το γραφένιο, το οποίο έχει αναπτυχθεί σε υπόστρωμα χαλκού, μεταφέρεται σε άλλο υπόστρωμα, ενώ η δεύτερη μέθοδος (scotch tape method) περιγράφει πως μεταφέρουμε το γραφένιο από τον γραφίτη με χρήση κολλητικής ταινίας. Τέλος, αναλύουμε τον τρόπο με τον οποίο παρασκευάσαμε δοκίμια (πολυμεθακριλικός-μεθυλεστέρας) PMMA/Gr/Cu τα οποία χρησιμοποιήσαμε για την έρευνά μας. Το τέταρτο κεφάλαιο αποτελεί μια φασματοσκοπική μελέτη του γραφενίου. Περιγράφει το πρώτο μέρος των πειραματικών δεδομένων που αναφέρονται στην μελέτη του γραφενίου το οποίο τοποθετήσαμε σε υπόστρωμα PDMS. Για την μελέτη αυτή διαθέτουμε δυο δείγματα. Και στα δυο αυτά δείγματα έχουμε τοποθετήσει φύλλα γραφενίου πάνω σε PDMS. Στο πρώτο δείγμα έχουμε ακολουθήσει την μέθοδο της μικρομηχανικής αποφλοίωσης για να μεταφέρουμε το γραφένιο στην επιφάνεια του PDMS, ενώ στο δεύτερο έχουμε μεταφέρει γραφένιο, αφού πρώτα έχει αναπτυχθεί σε χαλκό με την μέθοδο CVD. Στο πρώτο μας δείγμα έχουμε μεταφέρει εκτός από μονά στρώματα γραφενίου, διπλά και τριπλά στρώματα αυτού. Επίσης, στο δεύτερο δείγμα, με κατάλληλη επεξεργασία έχουμε αναπτύξει ένα επαναλαμβανόμενο μοτίβο οπών. Σκοπός μας, λοιπόν, είναι η μελέτη και η ανάλυση της συμπεριφοράς του γραφενίου στην επιφάνεια του PDMS καθώς και η σύγκριση αυτής με άλλα υποστρώματα. Επίσης μελετάμε τις διαφορές, όσον αφορά των διαφορετικών μεθόδων μεταφοράς του γραφενίου που χρησιμοποιήσαμε, μεταξύ των δυο δειγμάτων που διαθέτουμε. Επιχειρούμε, δηλαδή, με την χαρτογράφηση των δειγμάτων μας να κατανοήσουμε τον τρόπο με τον οποίο τοποθετήθηκε (κάθισε) το γραφένιο πάνω στην επιφάνεια του υποστρώματος αλλά και τον τρόπο που αλληλεπιδρά με αυτό. Επιπρόσθετα παραθέτουμε και αναλύουμε φάσματα Raman για ένα, δύο και τρία στρώματα γραφενίου. Και τέλος, ερευνούμε τη διαφορετική συμπεριφορά του γραφενίου σε υπόστρωμα (supported graphene) και στον αέρα (suspended graphene). Στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο ασχολούμαστε με την συμπεριφορά του γραφενίου, το οποίο αναπτύχθηκε στην επιφάνεια του χαλκού με τη μέθοδο της χημικής εναπόθεσης ατμών. Πρωταρχικός μας στόχος είναι η μελέτη της αλληλεπίδρασης του γραφενίου με το υπόστρωμα του χαλκού και κατ’ επέκταση η θερμομηχανική συμπεριφορά της μονής στρώσης γραφενίου, η οποίας εκτιμάται με τη θερμοκρασιακή εξάρτηση από την φασματοσκοπία Raman στην περιοχή θερμοκρασιών μεταξύ -1500C και 2400C. Για να επιτευχθεί η θερμοκρασιακή εξάρτηση του γραφενίου, τα φάσματα Raman λήφθηκαν και κατά την ψύξη και την θέρμανση των δειγμάτων με χρήση της διάταξής THM600 της εταιρίας Linkam. Στη συνέχεια σε αντίστοιχο δείγμα γραφενίου πάνω σε χαλκό εναποθέτουμε PMMA με τρείς διαφορετικούς ρυθμούς στροφών (4000rpm, 5000rpm, 6000rpm), με σκοπό να διαπιστώσουμε εάν και πώς με την εναπόθεση του πολυμερούς το φύλλο του γραφενίου επηρεάστηκε σε σχέση με πριν. / This thesis took place in the composite materials laboratory at ITE/IEXMH in Patras. The main part of this thesis is the transfer of a single-layer of graphene to a PDMS substrate and its characterization via Raman spectroscopy as well as the study of the interaction of graphene with the substrate. Last but not least the thermomechanical study of a single-layer of graphene which was grown on a copper surface. More specifically the first chapter of this thesis is a first introduction to graphene, answering various questions such as, how it was discovered, what it is, what properties it has, how it is produced, what its structure is (crystalline, electronic) and many others. The second chapter discusses the experimental techniques, the spectroscopic methods and also the experimental configurations that were used in the preparation of this thesis. In order to, characterize and study graphene placed on various substrates (PDMS, PMMA, Si/〖SiO〗_2, Cu) Raman spectroscopy is mainly used. We also use other methods, such as optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the Linkam’s company heating-cooling stage (THMS 600). The third chapter describes the preparation processes of the samples under consideration. We begin by analyzing the way in which we produce the PDMS samples. We then continue by examining the two main methods of transferring graphene. The first method describes how the graphene, grown on a copper substrate, is transferred on another, while the second one that is the micromechanical exfoliation method (also known as the scotch tape method), describes the way in which we transfer graphene from graphite to a substrate using a scotch tape. Finally, we analyze the way in which we produced PMMA/Gr/Cu samples which were used for our research. The fourth chapter constitutes a spectroscopic study of graphene. It describes the first part of our experimental data which pertain to the study of graphene placed on PDMS substrate. Our purpose is to study and analyze the graphene behavior on the PDMS surface as well as to compare it to other substrates. We also point out the differences of the various transfer methods of the graphene that was used to produce our samples. By mapping our samples we attempt to comprehend the way in which the graphene was placed over the substrate surface and the way it interacts with it. In addition, we present and analyze Raman spectra for one, two and three graphene layers. Finally, we investigate the difference in the behavior of graphene placed on a substrate (supported graphene) and free standing graphene (suspended graphene). The fifth chapter discusses the behavior of graphene which was developed on a copper surface via the chemical deposition method. Our initial goal is to study the interaction of graphene with the copper substrate and furthermore its temperature dependence in the temperature range between 150 (_ ^o)C and 240 (_ ^o)C. In order to achieve the temperature dependence of graphene, Raman spectra were obtained using the Linkam’s company stage THM 600 both during cooling and heating of the samples. Moreover, we place PMMA on a corresponding sample of graphene on copper with three different rates of speed (4000 rpm, 5000 rpm, 6000 rpm) in order to see whether and how the graphene sheet was affected by the deposition of the polymer.

In copper chemical mechanical planarization (CMP), in situ detection of barrier to dielectric layer transition is typically done using an optical reflectance technique. The introduction of carbon doped oxides (CDOs) as low-dielectric constant (k) materials for dielectric layers has opened up the possibility of using spectroscopic techniques for detecting such transitions more efficiently. The vibrational frequencies of the bonds between C, H, O, and Si in these low-k materials may be readily detected by spectroscopic techniques such as Raman and infrared (IR) spectroscopies. Since CMP is carried out in aqueous media, IR spectroscopy is not very desirable due to strong absorption of water in the same region as C-H vibrations (2800 cm⁻¹ to 3300 cm⁻¹). In contrast, Raman spectroscopy shows minimal water interference and can be used to efficiently monitor the signal from CDO films even in aqueous environments that prevail under CMP conditions. The research reported in this dissertation concerns the use of Raman spectroscopy in detecting the transition from tantalum (Ta) barrier layer to CDO dielectric layer, insitu. Intensities of Raman peaks characteristic of Si-Si vibrations from silicon substrates and C-H vibrations from low-k materials were used for monitoring CDO thickness and detecting removal of Ta layer. An abrasion cell was integrated with a Raman spectrometer to demonstrate the feasibility of Raman monitoring in-situ. Additionally, an alternative method was investigated for monitoring transitions in highly fluorescent low-k materials where Raman can not be used. The fluorescence intensity was used to effectively monitor Ta to low-k transitions. As a secondary objective, the Raman technique was used to monitor the composition of polishing slurries, which in the case of copper CMP, have a rich chemistry, which may change during the course of polishing due to consumption and decomposition of certain constituents. Various aspects, such as small layer thickness (<50 μm), continuous flow of the slurry, and dynamics of the film removal process pose a great challenge to the monitoring of slurry components between the pad and the wafer. The slurry constituents such as oxidants and corrosion inhibitors have unique signatures that can be detected using spectroscopic techniques. In this study Raman spectroscopy was used to detect and quantify chemical species such as hydroxylamine, benzotriazole and hydrogen peroxide in-situ. A more detailed study pertaining to the protonation of hydroxylamine with respect to the pH was also performed. Finally, surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) was also investigated to improve the detection of pyridine and benzotriazole at low concentrations (<100 ppm).

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The nearby excited states of Fe('2+) in MgO have been observed by Raman spectroscopy for the first time. We observed an A(,1g) impurity mode (185 cm('-1)) and an electronic transition at 110.5 (+OR-) .8 cm('-1) which we associate with the first excited states of the ferrous ion, (GAMMA)(,3g) and (GAMMA)(,4g), previously observed by far infra-red optical absorption. / Crystal field theory and group theory are used to characterize the energy levels and the wavefunctions of the ferrous ion. The observed reduction in the spin-orbit splitting of the energy levels is accounted for by solving the Jahn-Teller Hamiltonian in the approximation of the cluster model. / Uniaxial stress applied to the MgO:Fe('2+) samples produced a shift in the observed electronic transitions. The stress Hamiltonian is solved from which is extracted the experimental value of the strain coupling coefficient to E(,g) deformation (V(,2) = 7140 (+OR-) 1800 cm('-1)) which led, ultimately, to the Jahn-Teller coupling coefficients and to the Jahn-Teller energies ((E(,JT))(,E) = 80 cm('-1) and 3/2(E(,JT))(,T) = 150('-1)) pertinent to the ferrous ion in MgO.

The production of bio-ethanol from lignocellulosic material requires a more efficient process to be feasible and compete with products from fossil fuels. There is a need to rapidly and nondestructively be able to determine key components during fermentation. Raman spectroscopy is a technique, which can be used to monitor the fermentation process in real-time and provide information about key components which can be accessed immediately, thus facilitating process control. A continuous system with membrane cell recycling was set up and fermentations were performed using Saccharomyces cerevisiae ATCC 96581. Fermentations were performed to test for optimal dilution rates and operating times, the effect of different sugar concentrations in the media feed, and which position in the system was optimal for Raman data collection. Raman data and aliquot samples for HPLC validation were continuously collected throughout the fermentations. Raman data was analysed with PLS models to obtain component concentrations, for which RMSE was calculated in order to compare to HPLC validation set. Fermentations were performed with synthetic glucose media as well as with poplar hydrolysate. It was shown that the continuous system with membrane cell recycling could achieve a glucose-to-ethanol conversion of between 75-100%. The process could be sufficiently monitored by Raman spectroscopy, and predicted concentrations were within the range of the validation set in most cases. However, the error of prediction varied between the different fermentations.

This Masters thesis investigates the effects of post growth rapid thermal annealing on colloidal CdTe nanoparticles. This novel process has not previously been applied to colloidal nanoparticles. It is found that rapid thermally annealing with temperatures up to 400°C, the number of defect bonds in the semiconductor core will decrease and the zincblende structural phase will prevail. These findings are identified using Raman spectroscopy enhanced in a liquid core waveguide and corroborated using a variety of other analysis techniques. What is also important is that while the semiconductor core is changing, the optical characteristics of the material remain nominally unchanged. Additionally, a circulatory peristaltic pump system that is suitable for future in situ monitoring was developed and used to investigate the length effects of Teflon capillary tubes as a liquid core waveguide for Raman spectroscopy.

This Masters thesis investigates the effects of post growth rapid thermal annealing on colloidal CdTe nanoparticles. This novel process has not previously been applied to colloidal nanoparticles. It is found that rapid thermally annealing with temperatures up to 400°C, the number of defect bonds in the semiconductor core will decrease and the zincblende structural phase will prevail. These findings are identified using Raman spectroscopy enhanced in a liquid core waveguide and corroborated using a variety of other analysis techniques. What is also important is that while the semiconductor core is changing, the optical characteristics of the material remain nominally unchanged. Additionally, a circulatory peristaltic pump system that is suitable for future in situ monitoring was developed and used to investigate the length effects of Teflon capillary tubes as a liquid core waveguide for Raman spectroscopy.

This thesis reports the spectroscopic and computational studies of a number of Cu(I), Re(I) and Ru(II) complexes of polypyridyl ligands. The ligands considered in this study were 1,10-phenanthroline, 4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline, 3,4,7,8-tetramethyl-1,10-phenanthroline, dibenzo[b,j][1,10]phenanthroline, dipyrido[2,3-a:3�,2�-c]phenazine, dipyrido[2,3-a:3�,2�-c]-6,7-dichlorophenazine and dipyrido[2,3-a:3�,2�-c]-6,7-dimethylphenazine. Density functional theory calculations were carried out on the polypyridyl ligands. Validation of the calculations was carried out by comparison of the predicted values to observables. The structures were compared to previously published X-ray crystal data. Calculated bond lengths were typically calculated to be within 0.02 Å of those in the crystal structure. The calculated vibrational spectra were compared to measured IR and Raman spectra. The correspondence between calculated and measured frequencies was quantified using the mean absolute deviation between the two sets of frequencies. This was typically found to be less than 10 cm⁻�. The robustness of the calculation was further tested by calculations on perdeuterated analogues of some of the ligands. The calculations were extended to metal moieties and validated as for the ligands. Resonance Raman and infrared spectra of the reduced states of some Re(I) complexes are reported. The structure and spectra have been modelled by considering the radical anion of the polypyridyl ligand and the reduced state of the complex. There is improvement in the mean absolute deviation, between calculated and observed frequencies, upon incorporation of the metal moiety into the calculation. Spectra are successfully modelled confirming the validity of the modelled structures. The resonance Raman and infrared spectra of the metal-to-ligand charge transfer excited states of some Cu(I), Re(I) and Ru(II) complexes are reported. Density functional theory calculations on the lowest energy triplet states aided in the spectral assignment of bands. Cu(I) complexes were successfully modelled with mean absolute deviations, between calculated and observed frequencies, of less than 10 cm⁻�. The spectra of the Re(I) and Ru(II) complexes were less successfully modelled. Incorporation of the Ru(II) centre into the calculation of the vibrational frequencies of dipyrido[2,3-a:3�,2�-c]phenazine complexes offers no improvement over modelling the radical anion of this polypyridyl ligand. The excited state lifetimes of a number of polypyridyl complexes have been reported. The changes in lifetimes of similar complexes were found to be consistent with the energy gap law or changes in the conjugation of the involved polypyridyl ligand. This project has allowed the excited state structures of a number of polypyridyl complexes to be determined using vibrational spectroscopy to validate density functional theory calculations. This has provided a study strategy that may be applied to other metal polypyridyl complexes.