Information on milk production could be useful in designing strategies that would help to improve milk production in communal farming systems. This study was conducted to determine milk production and calf performance of Nguni and crossbreds under smallholder cattle production conditions. Four trials were conducted in the study. The objective of the first trial was to determine farmer perceptions on milk production and calf rearing in smallholder areas. Data were obtained from 218 smallholder farmers, using a structured questionnaire. Smallholder farmer sector is constituted by small scale commercial farmers and communal farmers. Small-scale commercial farmers in South Africa obtained farms from the government through land claims or they bought the farms. Their farming background is a communal type. Communal farmers are farmers that are sharing the same grazing land and animals are managed according to the experience of the owner. The findings in this study indicated that there were numerous constraints to milk production in smallholder areas. These included lack of technical expertise and poor veterinary support services. The farmers also indicated that calf performance was low. The second trial was conducted to determine if there were differences in calf performance, gastrointestinal parasites and nutritionally-related blood metabolites between Nguni and crossbred calves. Body weights and faecal samples were collected monthly until weaning at six months. The levels of total protein, albumin, globulins, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), glucose, cholesterol and minerals were determined monthly. Nguni calves had higher birth weights than crossbreds (P<0.05). Average daily gain and weaning weights of Nguni calves were greater than crossbred calves (P<0.05. Nguni calves had lower total protein at early age after birth (P<0.05). However, at weaning Nguni calves had higher total protein than crossbreds (P<0.05). Nguni calves had higher levels of glucose and NEFA concentrations than crossbred calves (P<0.05). In the third trial, milk utilisation patterns in smallholder areas of the Eastern Cape were assessed. Cattle owners (n = 130) were randomly selected in three different regions to determine milk consumption patterns, milk sales, prices and factors influencing these activities. The information was gathered using milk recording sheets, which were administered in February (early lactation) and June (late lactation) in 2009. Milk consumption per household was similar among the three districts (P>0.05). Milk was utilised as both fresh and sour. Fresh milk was utilised with tea/coffee and porridge. Excess fresh milk was utilised to feed pets (mostly cats and puppies). The puppies were fed on mostly whey, and, at times, on fresh milk. Sour milk was utilised to prepare of umvubo (a mixture of sour milk and scrambled porridge (umphokoqo) or a mixture of sour milk and bread). In some cases, excess milk was given to neighbours as a form of social investment and fame. The quality of milk from Nguni and crossbred cows was compared in the fourth trial. Milk samples were evaluated for quality in early (February), mid (April) and late (June) lactation in 2009. The essential amino acids, non-essential amino acids and fatty acids were determined. Nguni milk had higher amino acids and fatty acids concentration than crossbreds (P<0.05). Nguni milk had higher arginine levels in the early and mid lactation periods compared to crossbred cows (P<0.05). Nguni milk had higher methionine and threonine levels than crossbred cows (P<0.05). Methionine levels in Nguni were 0.15, 0.19 and 0.18 in early, mid and late lactation while crossbred had 0.05, 0.05 and 0.06 (g/100ml), respectively. There were significant interactions between lactation stage and genotype for lysine levels with Nguni milk having higher (P<0.05) lysine levels in the mid and late lactation periods. Nguni cows had higher tyrosine, glycine and proline levels than crossbred cows (P<0.05). In the early lactation, Nguni cows had higher serine levels than crossbred cows (P<0.05). In mid lactation crossbred cows had higher serine levels than Nguni cows (P<0.05). There were significant differences between genotypes on fatty acid composition. Nguni milk had higher C12:0 levels than crossbreds (P<0.05). However, milk from crossbred cows had higher C14:0 levels than that for Nguni cows (P<0.05) and also had higher levels of C16:0 and C18:0 fatty acids compared to Nguni cows. Crossbred milk had higher levels of C18n1n9t in early lactation period than Nguni and decreased as the stage of lactation progressed (P<0.05). In the early lactation, the levels of C18n1nC in Nguni milk were higher (P<0.05) than in late lactation. In the mid and late lactation, crossbred cows milk had higher C18n1nC levels than in early lactation (P<0.05). Lactation stage and genotype affected saturated fatty, monounsaturated fatty acids, cis-fatty acids and omega 3 (n-3) to omega 6 (n-6). In general, Nguni milk had higher mineral composition than crossbred milk (P<0.05). In conclusion, Nguni calves performed better than crossbred calves under communal rangelands. There is a need for crossing Nguni cows with dairy breeds in commercial dairying by smalhoder farmers as a strategy for improving both milk quality and quantity.

Thesis (MSc (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH SUMMARY: Protected areas do not always achieve the desired level of biodiversity conservation, while often reducing the welfare of indigenous communities by reducing availability of land for subsistence. Traditional agricultural landscapes are significant biodiversity refugia and can contribute meaningfully to conservation. Rangelands comprise one-third to one-half of the world’s terrestrial surface, providing livelihoods for around 220 million people, usually in a communal subsistence system. Colonial practices impinged on traditional land-use practices with far-reaching social and environmental impacts. This has resulted in management based on assumptions regarding vegetation dynamics and traditional lifestyles that are increasingly shown to be inaccurate. A comparison of a vegetation survey based on conventional scientific methods and a survey of the perceptions of pastoralists was undertaken to highlight differences and similarities between the two knowledge systems with the hope of providing guidelines for more sustainable land-use practices in the communal rangelands of Namaqualand, South Africa. Vegetation responses to removal of grazing pressure revealed complex interactions that do not correspond with the prevailing management paradigm. Rather than a predictive relationship between livestock and vegetation, environmental factors play a large role in determining plant composition, abundance and cover. Pastoralists’ perceptions reflected this complexity in rangeland resource dynamics. The impact of livestock on rangeland resource dynamics was perceived by herders to be secondary to a range of environmental and climatic factors. Both sets of results were at odds with the theories that currently govern management in this system. Studies in rangeland systems must take the complexity of the subject into account. Research into such socio-ecological systems must take a multiplicity of factors – social, environmental, economic, political and other – into account. Implications for management are that it is inappropriate to adhere strictly to the conventional, conservative strategies that are prescribed by conservation and agricultural authorities. Rather, a more flexible, opportunistic grazing strategy would allow the persistence of traditional subsistence livelihoods without serious negative consequences for biodiversity conservation. / AFRIKAANSR OPSOMMING: Die instelling van beskermde gebiede lewer nie altyd die gewenste vlak van biodiversiteitsbewaring, terwyl die welvaart van plaaslike gemeenskappe dikwels daaronder ly deur die afname in grond beskikbaar vir bestaanspraktyke. Tradisionele landboulandskappe is beduidende biodiversiteitshawens wat ‘n belangrike bydrae tot bewaring kan maak. Weivelde bevat ‘n derde tot ‘n helfte van die wêreld se landsoppervlakte en ondersteun rondom 220 miljoen mense, gewoonlik binne ‘n gemeenskaplike bestaansstelsel. Kolonialisasie het inbraak gemaak op tradisionele bestuurspraktyke, met verrykende sosialeen omgewingsimpakte. Dit het gelei tot bestuurspraktyke gebaseer op standpunte oor plantegroeidinamika en traditionele lewenswyses wat toenemend verkeerd bywys word. ‘n Vergelyking van ‘n plantegroei opname gebaseer op konvensionele wetenskaplike metodes en ‘n opname van die standpunte van veewagters is onderneem om die verskille en ooreenkomstes tussen die twee kennisstelsels uiteen te lê met die hoop om riglyne vir meer volhoubare bestuurspraktyke in die meentgronde van Namakwaland, Suid-Afrika te verskaf. Plantegroei reaksies tot die verwydering van weidingsdruk wys op komplekse interaksies wat nie ooreenstem met die heersende bestuursparadigma. Eerder as ‘n voorspelbare verwantskap tussen vee en plantegroei, omgewingsfaktore speel ‘n groot rol in die bepaling van plantgemeenskapsamestelling, -getalle en grondbedekking. Die veewagters se standpunte het hierdie kompleksiteit in plantegroeidinamika weerspiëel. Die impak van vee op die weiveldhulpbron is deur veewagters as sekondêr beskou teenoor ‘n reeks omgewings- en klimaatsfaktore. Beide stel resultate is in teenstelling met die teoriëe wat tans bestuur in hierdie stelsel bepaal. Studies in weiveldstelsels moet die kompleksiteit daarvan in ag neem. Navorsing oor hierdie sosio-ekologiese stelsels moet ‘n verskeidenheid faktore – sosiale-, omgewings-, ekonomiese-, politiese- en ander – in ag neem. Implikasies vir bestuur is dat dit onvanpas is om te volhard met konvensionele, konservatiewe strategiëe voorgeskryf deur bewarings- en landboukundige gesagte. ‘n Meer aanpasbare, voordeelnemende weidingsstrategie sal die voortbestaan van traditionele bestaanslewenspraktyke toelaat sonder ernstige negatiewe nagevolge vir biodiversiteitsbewaring.

The objective of the study was to determine sheep growth performance, fleece weights and wool quality characteristics in the sweet and sourveld communal rangelands of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Data were obtained in 80 ewes aged two to three years, selected in four ecologically different communities. Two communities (Roxeni and Tyabane) were in a sweetveld area and the other two communities (Luzi I and Luzi II) were in a sourveld area. The ewes from Tyabane were nondescript, whereas ewes from Roxeni, Luzi I and Luzi II were crossbred between Merinos and non-descript sheep. Selected ewes were monitored for live weight, body condition scoring and fleece weight during shearing. Wool samples were collected from each ewe and were analysed for fibre diameter, comfort factor, clean yield, wool crimps, staple length, staple strength and the Position of break. Sheep from Roxeni were heavier (P <0.05) (39.9 ± 1.1kg) than sheep from Tyabane (29.8 ± 1.1kg). Sheep from Tyabane had the lightest (P <0.05) fleece weight (1.0 ± 1.1kg) and sheep from Roxeni had the heaviest (3.1 ± 1.1kg). There were no significant differences (P ≥0.05) between body condition scores of sheep in Roxeni and the Luzi communities. The live weights of the two-year old ewes were similar (P ≥0.05) to the three-year old ewes’ live weight. However, the three year old ewes had higher (P <0.05) body condition scores than the two year old ewes. Two year old ewes also had lower (P <0.05) fleece weight than the three years old ewes. Wool from Roxeni, Luzi I and Luzi II had lower fibre diameter (P <0.05) than wool from Tyabane. Roxeni sheep had the highest clean yield (P <0.05) of wool, followed by Luzi I and Luzi II; Tyabane had lowest clean yield percentage of wool. Wool from sheep grazing on sweetveld had a higher (P <0.05) clean yield percentage (74.3 ± 0.7%) than those grazing on sourveld (71.7 ± 0.7%). There were higher staple mid-breaks (69.5 ± 5.2) and lower base-breaks (30.5 ± 5.2) in sweetveld (P <0.05) than in sourveld, 7.5 ± 5.2 and 92.5 ± 5.2 for mid-breaks and lower base-breaks, respectively. It was concluded that sheep raised in the sweetveld and bred with purebred Merino rams had higher performance than the ones reared in the sourveld. The young upgraded ewes had a higher wool quality than the older ewes raised on communal rangelands.

Surveys were conducted to compare the seasonal tick prevalence and loads, and sero-prevalence of tick-borne diseases (TBD) in Nguni and non-descript cattle on the sweet and sour communal rangelands of the Eastern Cape Province. The tick species observed on both rangeland types were Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (71.0 %), Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) species (29.2 %) and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi (40.2 %). Hyalomma species (19.0 %) occurred only on the sour rangeland. Tick loads were higher (P < 0.05) in the hot-wet season than in the cool-dry season. Cattle in the sweet rangeland had significantly lower (P < 0.05) tick loads than those in the sour rangeland. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus loads were lower (P < 0.05) in the indigenous Nguni than non-descript cattle in the hot-wet and post-rainy season. Hyalomma species were also significantly lower (P < 0.05) in the Nguni than non-descript cattle in all the seasons. Three TBDs were observed, namely Babesia bovis (44.6 %), Babesia bigemina (45.9 %) and Anaplasma marginale (25.6 %). All the animals were sero-negative for Ehrlichia ruminantium. Nguni cattle had lower (P < 0.05) sero-prevalence for A. marginale in the cool-dry season and B. bigemina in the cool-dry and hot-wet seasons. Cattle in the sweet rangeland had significantly lower sero-prevalence of B. bovis and B. bigemina. Infection with B. bovis and A. marginale decreased (P < 0.05) the packed cell volume. Nguni cattle were recommended for use in the integrated control of ticks and TBD in the communal areas of South Africa as they were better able to cope with tick and TBD infestations than non-descript breeds.

South African rangelands in combination with their surrounding homesteads occupy 13% of the entire land surface in South Africa. These rangelands are a source of forage for communal livestock. The rangelands in communal tenure system are degraded due to high human population and livestock numbers. The rangeland of Peddie was never evaluated since the introduction of Nguni Cattle Empowerment Project. Therefore, socio-ecological evaluation was conducted in order to interlink farmer‟s perceptions and scientific data to recommend appropriate rangeland management and restoration programme. Two structured questionnaires consisting of close and open ended questions were used to investigate farmer‟s perceptions on rangeland condition, dynamics, and their causes. Sixty households were randomly selected on the bases of livestock ownership and the membership in Nguni Cattle Project. In each household, any respondent of 20 years or greater, and a key informant of age greater than 40 years were selected. For scientific assessment of range condition, three homogenous vegetation units namely grassland, scattered and dense bushland were demarcated into four 100m x 50m replicates. In each replicate, two 100m transects were laid parallel to each other with 30m equidistant apart. The step point and harvesting method along each transect were employed for herbaceous species composition and biomass production. The point-to-tuft distance was also determined as a proxy for basal cover. Woody density, species composition and tree equivalents were determined in 200m2 belt transects in each HVU replicates. The germination method for soil seed bank evaluation was also employed to find plant species composition and density. The soil nutrients (OC, N, P, K, Na, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu and Mn) and pH were analysed through solution preparation and observation under photospectrometer to determine functional capacity of the soil of Peddie rangeland. The farmer‟s perceptions comprised of 63% females and 37% males (n = 120) with a mean household of 8 people, 5 adults and 3 children. It was perceived by 93.3% respondents that the rangeland of Peddie have undergone changes over two decades. These changes were perceived by 83% respondents to be accompanied by decline in livestock numbers. Woody encroachment and overgrazing were perceived to be the major attributes of these vegetation changes. The scientific rangeland condition assessment confirmed that these changes were more pronounced as bush density increases. Dense bushland had a significantly high (p<0.05) encroached condition with 6650 trees ha-1 and 4909.5 TE ha-1 beyond the recommended thresholds of 2400 trees ha-1 and 2500 TE ha-1 respectively. Scattered bushland had a fair condition of 1950 trees ha-1 and 1198.1TE ha-1. Themeda triandra as a key species was significantly higher (p<0.05) in grassland (31.1%) than scattered (15.6%) and dense bushland (6.1%). There was a declining trend in biomass production from grassland to dense bushland. The summer biomass production was significantly higher (p<0.05) in grassland than scattered and dense bushland but winter biomass was not significantly different (p>0.05) from all homogenous vegetation units of Peddie rangeland. However, the soil fertility increased with an increase in bush density except organic carbon (OC) which was 1.61% in grassland, 1.46% in scattered and 1.53% in dense bushland respectively. Soil N, K, P, Mg2+ Na+, Ca2+, Cu, Zn, Mn and pH were significantly higher (p<0.05) in dense bushland than grassland and scattered bushland. High soil fertility in dense bushland may be attributed to by abscission of woody plants and litter decomposition. In the soil seed bank, the abundances of forbs were significantly higher than sedges (χ2 = 12, df = 1, p = 0.001) and grasses (χ2 = 8.333, df = 1, p = 0.004) in all homogenous vegetation units while sedges were not significantly different (χ2 = 3, df = 1, p = 0.083) from grasses. The Sorensen‟s index indicated that soil seed bank and extant vegetation were significantly different (p<0.05). Annual and biennial forbs and sedges had high abundances while perennial grasses formed a bulk in above ground vegetation. This provided an insight that a reliance on soil seed bank for restoration of Peddie rangeland would not be advisable because it can result in retrogression. The communal rangeland assessment provided clear qualitative and quantitative data when the combination of indigenous knowledge and scientific assessments was done. The rationale is that conclusions and recommendations of range assessment are relient on the farmer‟s perceptions pertinent to their livestock production systems and their rangeland management objectives. This study has shown that inclusion of communal farmers in policy making can provide better insight because those are the people experiencing the consequences of range degradation.

The objective of this study was to determine sheep production practices, constraints, flock dynamics, body condition and weight variation in two ecologically different resource-poor communal farming systems of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Mean sheep flock sizes per household were not significantly different between the two ecologically different areas (villages); Gaga (19.0±3.10) and Sompondo (18.3±3.10). Shortage of feed, disease and parasite were reported the most important constraints across the two villages. In both villages, sheep housing was poorly constructed using acacia brushwoods. Fewer farmers owned rams: the rams to ewes ratio for the two villages were 1:20, 1:19 for Gaga and Sompondo, respectively. The low ram: ewe ratios reported suggest that inbreeding might have been reducing productivity of their flocks. There was also uncontrolled breeding due to undefined and mating seasons. Gall sickness, heart water and footrot caused most of the sheep mortalities. Dohne Merinos were the common genotypes in the two villages. Total entrances for each flock were higher (p < 0.05) in hot-dry season and hot-wet season than in other seasons. Most of the entrances were lambs and were born in hot-dry season (September) and cool-dry season (June) for larger flocks (10.90 ± 3.02) and for small flocks (3.65 ± 3.02). High lamb mortalities were experienced in the post-rainy (April) and hot-wet (December) season. There was a significant interaction between season and flock size. Most of the sales occurred in the hot-wet season. Ecological area had significant effect on sheep production potential (p < 0.05) in both flock classes. The average sheep production efficiency (SPE) value for Gaga and Sompondo were 0.50 ± 0.116 and 0.50 ± 0.096 respectively. The SPE for large flock was higher (p < 0.05) by season and flock size. Large flocks had a higher (p < 0.05) SPE values and the SPE ranged from 1.11 ± 0.193 in April, a post-rainy season month to 1.55 ± 0.193 in December, a hot-wet season month. Lamb mortalities constituted the greater part of outflows. High lamb mortalities occurred in hot-wet (December), hot-dry (September) and post-rainy (April) seasons. There was a significant interaction between season and age of sheep on body weight of sheep. Highest (p < 0.05) body weights were recorded in the post-rainy and autumn season in both lambs and ewes. It is therefore very important to come up with affordable interventions which take into play ecological differences of the areas for improved nutritional status of sheep in communal areas which will lead to improved sheep productivity and the poor-resourced farmer human nutritional and livelihood.

No description available.

MSc (Botany) / Department of Botany / Plant populations are determined by many elements that impose demographic filters. Following disturbance, in African savanna woodland trees regenerate both sexually and vegetatively. Vachellia karroo (Hayne) Banfi and Galasso, family Fabaceae and sub family Mimosideae, commonly known as “sweet thorn” or “soetdoring” (Afrikaans), is a leguminous shrub common throughout Southern Africa. Its distribution range is from the Southwestern Cape northwards into Namibia, Angola, Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is a pioneer species and has the ability to encroach rapidly into grassland grazing areas. Therefore, V. karroo is considered the most important woody invader of grasslands in South Africa. This study aimed at investigating the population biology and ecology of V. karroo in the clay waterlogged site of the Nylsvley Nature Reserve. Plant height, stem circumference, canopy cover, distance between individuals were measured and disturbance levels on individuals of V. karroo were estimated during sampling. The results showed that the population of V. karroo display an adequate growth curve thus implying that the population of V. karroo in the Nylsvley Nature Reserve is healthy and viable. More mature healthy individuals were found in September and December, than during June and July; this is obviously because early summer season, and in September most of the savanna plant species were starting to actively recover from the winter dry season. This is confirmation enough that the population of V. karroo is expanding in the clay waterlogged areas of Nylsvley Nature Reserve.