In this thesis, I trace the evolution of the rap market from its emergence in 1979 in New York City to its development into a national industry in 1990. I analyze the motivations of the producers of rap and the mechanisms that led to their current organization. Independent labels were the primary producers of rap records until they made distribution deals with major record companies in the second half of the eighties. I argue that the division of labor between production and distribution, which became the most common context for the production of the music, is both the result of an organizational strategy initiated by the majors and of the negative perception their executives had of rap artists.

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This thesis explores the interplay between hip hop culture, music and the state and commercial entities in New Zealand. Hip hop is a culture which is diverse and unique in that it can be viewed as both a form of expression and a form of empowerment for various cultures. It can also be used to make a profit for commercial organisations such as the recording and broadcasting industries. This study therefore seeks to approach the study of New Zealand hip hop in an innovative manner, and to provide a fresh perspective.There is also the need to provide a plausible definition which captures the complexities of hip hop culture. An assessment of both the American and New Zealand scene will provide a contrast in order to demonstrate that in both scenarios hip hop has the ability for empowerment and to create a new space for communities. Commercial exploitation has transformed hip hop in America, has severely reduced its ability to be seen as a source of public good and has reduced key aspects of the culture. New Zealand has managed to retain many elements of the sense of community and space of community inherent in hip hop culture and music. However commercial entities are gaining prominence in the exploitation of this culture. Hip hop locally has not made the transition to a purely commercial model, but is currently under threat.The means by which commercial organisations are gaining prominence is the unique aspect which shapes New Zealand hip hop and will be a focus of this study. State funding via New Zealand on Air (NZOA) is assisting in the transformation of hip hop from a source of public good to a music form capable of generating profit for organisations such as the recording industry. This study therefore will analyse the relationship between those who embrace hip hop as a culture capable of creating a sense of public good, organisations which are commercially exploiting this culture as a musical form, and the role of the state in assisting with the transition between public good and private consumption.

This study exp !ores the relationship between an individual's interest in and exposure to the rap/hip-hop genre and the messages and values contained within the music, as well as the role of self-esteem in generating interest and motivating exposure to rap/hip-hop music. A survey questionnaire was administered to 213 students at a community college in northern California. Interest and exposure to rap/hip-hop were found to be significantly correlated with acceptance of a number of values portrayed in the music. However, those most interested in and exposed to rap/hip-hop music were less likely to perceive negative social values in the music as well as believe these values characterized rap/hip-hop artists. Self-esteem failed as a predictor of interest and exposure to the music.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Opposing the culture of différance created through American cultural media, this thesis argues, Arab hip-hop artists revive the politically conscious sub-genre of hip-hop with the purpose of normalising their Arab existence. Appropriating hip-hop for a cultural protest, Arab artists create for themselves a sub-genre of conscious hip-hop – Arab-conscious hip-hop and function as Gramsci’s organic intellectuals, involved in better representation of Arabs in the mainstream. Critiquing power dynamics, Arab hip-hop artists are counter-hegemonic in challenging popular identity constructions of Arabs and revealing to audiences biases in media production and opportunities for progress towards social justice. Their identity (re)constructions maintain difference while avoiding Otherness. The intersection of Arab-consciousness through hip-hop and politics of identity necessitates a needed cultural protest, which in the case of Arabs has been severely limited. This thesis progresses by reviewing literature on politics of identity, Arabs in American cultural media, Gramsci’s organic intellectuals and conscious hip-hop. Employing criticism, this thesis presents an argument for Arab hip-hop group, The Arab Summit, as organic intellectuals involved in mainstream representation of the Arab community.