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INTRODUÇÃO Produtos intermediários da reação de Maillard e da peroxidação, como os compostos dicarbonílicos, reagem facilmente com grupamentos aminas de proteínas e ácidos nucléicos levando a modificações biológicas que podem resultar em patologias observadas no diabetes, aterosclerose e doenças neurodegenerativas. O consumo de Produtos da Reação de Maillard (PRM) aumentou nas últimas décadas e há evidências de que estas substâncias são absorvidas e podem tomar parte em processos patológicos, embora ainda não haja consenso sobre os possíveis efeitos deletério à saúde a partir do aumento de sua ingestão. Ressalta-se a necessidade de estimar o consumo destes PRMs a partir de dados sobre os conteúdos e a ingestão habitual do alimento em questão como cereais matinais e café. Objetivos: a) validar metodologia para quantificar indicadores da reação de Maillard: hidroximetilfurfural (HMF), furosina (FUR), carboximetilisina (CML) e Compostos Intermediários Fluorescentes (CIF) em cereais matinais (flocos e granola) e café; b) avaliar se há diferenças nos teores desses compostos nas diferentes marcas destes produtos comercializados em São Paulo; METODOLOGIA: Foram analisados dois lotes de três marcas de cereais do tipo flocos, três marcas de cereais do tipo granola e cinco marcas de café presentes em 100 por cento dos hipermercados visitados no município de São Paulo. A validação da metodologia para quantificação, empregando HPLC, consistiu no cálculo da exatidão (recuperação), repetibilidade e sensibilidade para os compostos: HMF e FUR. Foram determinados os teores de CIF por espectrofotometria de fluorescência e os teores de CML por teste imunoenzimático. RESULTADOS: Os métodos de determinação de FUR e HMF foram validados conforme o Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Normalização e 9 Qualidade Industrial (INMETRO). O teor médio de CIF livre e total foram maiores para as amostras de café, com média de 232CIF/mg e 765CIF/mg respectivamente. Não houve diferença (p>0,05) no teor de CIF livre e total entre os flocos F1 e F2. O mesmo foi observado para a granola marcas. G1, G2 e G3 A granola foi o produto com maior teor médio de HMF (67,5mg/Kg) e furosina (301mg/100g de proteína). A FUR não foi detectado nas amostras de café. Todas as marcas dos alimentos estudados para os indicadores HMF e FUR apresentaram diferença estatisticamente significativa (p<0,05). O café apresentou maior teor médio de CML (1823,5ng/mg de proteína), sem diferença entre as marcas (p>0,05) CONCLUSÕES: Os cereais do tipo flocos contribuem para maior ingestão de PRMs da fase inicial da reação de Maillard (RM), a granola contribui para maior ingestão de PRMs da fase intermediária da RM e o café contribui de forma significativa para maior ingestão de PRMs da fase avançada da RM. O café, por ser submetido a tratamento térmico mais severo apresenta maior concentração de PRMs da fase avançada da reação / INTRODUCTION Maillard reaction products and lipid peroxidation, such as dicarbonyl compounds easily react with amino groups of proteins and nucleic acids leading to biological changes that can result in complications in diseases such as diabetes, atherosclerosis and neurodegenerative. The consumption of Maillard Reaction Products (MRP) has increased in recent decades and there is evidence that these substances are absorbed and can participate in pathological processes, although there is no consensus about the possible harmful health effects from their intake. We highlight the need to identify the consumption of MRP, mainly in vulnerable populations like children and diabetics, in order to establish acceptable daily intakes and guidelines for the food industry. OBJECTIVES: a) validate the methodology to measure indicators of the Maillard reaction: hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), Furosine (RUF) carboxymethylysine (CML) and fluorescent intermediate compounds (FIC) in breakfast cereals (corn flakes and granola) and coffee, b) to evaluate if there are differences in the levels of these compounds contents among brands commercialized in São Paulo METHODS: two lots of 3 brands of flakes cereal, 3 brands of granola and 5 coffee brands present in 100 per cent of supermarkets visited in the city Sao Paulo were analyzed. HPLC methodology validation was assessed by determining accuracy (recovery), repeatability, and sensibility (linearity, limits of detection and quantitation) for the compounds: HMF and FUR. The contents of the Fluorescent Intermediary compounds (FIC) was measured by spectrophotometric method and the levels of CML by ELISA. RESULTS: Calibration curves determination coefficient (r 2) were higher than 0,99 for all compounds. Recovery ranged from 84 to 110 per cent and repeatability average was 3,5 per cent. The average content of free and total FIC was higher for coffee 232CIF/mg and 765CIF/mg respectively. The brands of granola and flakes was similar but just brands F1 and F2 was similar between brands (p<0,05). For HMF the higher values were for granola 67,5mg/kg. The presence of dried fruit in these grains may 11 have contributed significantly to the higher rate of this indicator. For indicator FUR average was higher in granola samples (301mg/100g of protein) and it was not possible to quantify the levels of FUR for coffee. All brands analyzed for HMF and FUR was similar (p<0,05). CML average was higher for coffee (1823,5ng/mg of protein). The brands analyzed was similar for all samples (p <0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Flakes contribute to higher intake of MRPs from early stage of the Maillard reaction (MR), the granola contributes to higher intake of MRPs from intermediate phase of MR and coffee contributes significantly to higher intake of final MRPs. Data suggest that coffee has more severe thermal treatment causing a higher concentration of MRPs from the final phase of the MR

INTRODUÇÃO Produtos intermediários da reação de Maillard e da peroxidação, como os compostos dicarbonílicos, reagem facilmente com grupamentos aminas de proteínas e ácidos nucléicos levando a modificações biológicas que podem resultar em patologias observadas no diabetes, aterosclerose e doenças neurodegenerativas. O consumo de Produtos da Reação de Maillard (PRM) aumentou nas últimas décadas e há evidências de que estas substâncias são absorvidas e podem tomar parte em processos patológicos, embora ainda não haja consenso sobre os possíveis efeitos deletério à saúde a partir do aumento de sua ingestão. Ressalta-se a necessidade de estimar o consumo destes PRMs a partir de dados sobre os conteúdos e a ingestão habitual do alimento em questão como cereais matinais e café. Objetivos: a) validar metodologia para quantificar indicadores da reação de Maillard: hidroximetilfurfural (HMF), furosina (FUR), carboximetilisina (CML) e Compostos Intermediários Fluorescentes (CIF) em cereais matinais (flocos e granola) e café; b) avaliar se há diferenças nos teores desses compostos nas diferentes marcas destes produtos comercializados em São Paulo; METODOLOGIA: Foram analisados dois lotes de três marcas de cereais do tipo flocos, três marcas de cereais do tipo granola e cinco marcas de café presentes em 100 por cento dos hipermercados visitados no município de São Paulo. A validação da metodologia para quantificação, empregando HPLC, consistiu no cálculo da exatidão (recuperação), repetibilidade e sensibilidade para os compostos: HMF e FUR. Foram determinados os teores de CIF por espectrofotometria de fluorescência e os teores de CML por teste imunoenzimático. RESULTADOS: Os métodos de determinação de FUR e HMF foram validados conforme o Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Normalização e 9 Qualidade Industrial (INMETRO). O teor médio de CIF livre e total foram maiores para as amostras de café, com média de 232CIF/mg e 765CIF/mg respectivamente. Não houve diferença (p>0,05) no teor de CIF livre e total entre os flocos F1 e F2. O mesmo foi observado para a granola marcas. G1, G2 e G3 A granola foi o produto com maior teor médio de HMF (67,5mg/Kg) e furosina (301mg/100g de proteína). A FUR não foi detectado nas amostras de café. Todas as marcas dos alimentos estudados para os indicadores HMF e FUR apresentaram diferença estatisticamente significativa (p<0,05). O café apresentou maior teor médio de CML (1823,5ng/mg de proteína), sem diferença entre as marcas (p>0,05) CONCLUSÕES: Os cereais do tipo flocos contribuem para maior ingestão de PRMs da fase inicial da reação de Maillard (RM), a granola contribui para maior ingestão de PRMs da fase intermediária da RM e o café contribui de forma significativa para maior ingestão de PRMs da fase avançada da RM. O café, por ser submetido a tratamento térmico mais severo apresenta maior concentração de PRMs da fase avançada da reação / INTRODUCTION Maillard reaction products and lipid peroxidation, such as dicarbonyl compounds easily react with amino groups of proteins and nucleic acids leading to biological changes that can result in complications in diseases such as diabetes, atherosclerosis and neurodegenerative. The consumption of Maillard Reaction Products (MRP) has increased in recent decades and there is evidence that these substances are absorbed and can participate in pathological processes, although there is no consensus about the possible harmful health effects from their intake. We highlight the need to identify the consumption of MRP, mainly in vulnerable populations like children and diabetics, in order to establish acceptable daily intakes and guidelines for the food industry. OBJECTIVES: a) validate the methodology to measure indicators of the Maillard reaction: hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), Furosine (RUF) carboxymethylysine (CML) and fluorescent intermediate compounds (FIC) in breakfast cereals (corn flakes and granola) and coffee, b) to evaluate if there are differences in the levels of these compounds contents among brands commercialized in São Paulo METHODS: two lots of 3 brands of flakes cereal, 3 brands of granola and 5 coffee brands present in 100 per cent of supermarkets visited in the city Sao Paulo were analyzed. HPLC methodology validation was assessed by determining accuracy (recovery), repeatability, and sensibility (linearity, limits of detection and quantitation) for the compounds: HMF and FUR. The contents of the Fluorescent Intermediary compounds (FIC) was measured by spectrophotometric method and the levels of CML by ELISA. RESULTS: Calibration curves determination coefficient (r 2) were higher than 0,99 for all compounds. Recovery ranged from 84 to 110 per cent and repeatability average was 3,5 per cent. The average content of free and total FIC was higher for coffee 232CIF/mg and 765CIF/mg respectively. The brands of granola and flakes was similar but just brands F1 and F2 was similar between brands (p<0,05). For HMF the higher values were for granola 67,5mg/kg. The presence of dried fruit in these grains may 11 have contributed significantly to the higher rate of this indicator. For indicator FUR average was higher in granola samples (301mg/100g of protein) and it was not possible to quantify the levels of FUR for coffee. All brands analyzed for HMF and FUR was similar (p<0,05). CML average was higher for coffee (1823,5ng/mg of protein). The brands analyzed was similar for all samples (p <0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Flakes contribute to higher intake of MRPs from early stage of the Maillard reaction (MR), the granola contributes to higher intake of MRPs from intermediate phase of MR and coffee contributes significantly to higher intake of final MRPs. Data suggest that coffee has more severe thermal treatment causing a higher concentration of MRPs from the final phase of the MR

Agricultural emissions are an important contributor to atmospheric aerosol. These emissions include nitrogen containing organic compounds, primarily as amines, which have not been well investigated to date. Although there have been several studies that have looked at the emission of gas phase amines, there are only a few studies that have focused on ambient amine-based aerosol. There have also only been a handful of smog chamber studies that have investigated amine aerosol chemistry. Kinetic studies have looked at the reactions of amines with OH and ozone. However, amine reactions with nitrate radical (NO3) are not well understood. Several years of measuring atmospheric particulate matter in Cache Valley, Utah, using an aerosol mass spectrometer (AMS), has shown the presence of amine aerosol in significant concentrations (0.5-6 μg/m3). Furthermore, the concentration of amine aerosol peaks at night when NO3 is the dominant oxidant. This thesis details experiments aimed at obtaining a better understanding of the underlying reactions that lead to aerosol formation in Cache Valley and is focused on amine reactivity studies, employing both field and laboratory experiments. There were two field studies performed near agricultural facilities in California. These studies provide a good comparison to the ambient chemistry observed in Utah. The detection of a small amount of amine aerosol was important in showing that amine aerosol is not unique to Utah. The results of these studies add to the previous knowledge base of ambient chemistry in California. This should help future researchers performing similar field studies in California and other locations. Smog chamber-based laboratory experiments included amine reactions with common oxidants, such as ozone and NO3. While small amounts of aerosol formation occurred with ozone (~10 μg/m3), reaction with NO3 produced the most aerosol (up to 135 μg/m3). The smog chamber studies show the importance of amine/NO3 chemistry in the formation of ambient aerosol. Researchers can use this work to aid in further understanding the ambient atmospheric chemistry occurring at various locations. The smog chamber studies also provide a knowledge base that should help guide future work into this area of research.

Entre as diferentes formas empregadas para o preparo de amostras orgânicas visando a determinação de elementos inorgânicos, uma alternativa que foi avaliada neste trabalho foi a digestão assistida por radiação microondas empregando ácidos diluídos. Estudos recentes demonstram ser essa uma alternativa eficiente no tocante à solubilização de elementos minerais para determinação por técnicas espectroscópicas. No entanto, a eficiência deste procedimento depende das características originais da amostra. Neste enfoque, a eficiência da decomposição foi avaliada, considerando-se as características originais das amostras e a caracterização dos produtos finais presentes na solução após a decomposição. Amostras de tecido vegetal (soja em gãos e Paspalum) e de tecido animal (sangue e vísceras de bovino), utilizando misturas oxidantes em diferentes concentrações ácidas foram digeridas em forno por radiação microondas com cavidade. A eficiência das decomposições, avaliada a partir da determinação dos teores de carbono orgânico residual e da recuperação de minerais. A caracterização original das amostras, realizada a partir da determinação dos teores de proteína bruta (PB), gordura (EE), carbono original (CHN-S), efetuada com o intuito de correlacionar essas características com os compostos remanescentes após as digestões. As soluções residuais foram caracterizadas inicialmente por técnica espectroscópica (RMN de 1H) para identificar os principais compostos orgânicos remanescentes. Após os primeiros resultados, estudos para separação FORAM realizados por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência com detecção por ultravioleta. Em seguida os produtos de reação foram, correlacionados com a composição química inicial das amostras. / Microwave-assisted with diluted acids is an alternative to sample preparation of organic samples owing inorganic elements solubilization for spectroscopic techniques determination. The efficiency of this procedure depends on the sample?s original characteristics. In this way, the decomposition efficiency was evaluated considering the sample?s original characteristics and the final products presents in the solution after decomposition. Grains of soybean and samples of forage, bovine blood, and bovine viscera were digested in cavity-microwave oven using oxidants mixtures in different acid concentrations. The decomposition efficiency was evaluated from residual organic carbon determination and mineral recovery by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. The original sample characterization was performed from crude protein amount, fatty, and original carbon. In order to identify the main remaining organic compounds, the residual solutions were firstly characterized by spectroscopy technique (1H NMR), with the identification of typical nitro-, aliphatic- and aromatic- compounds. Studies concerning separation of nitrobenzoic acids isomers were performed by HPLC-UV, by using reversal phase chromatography with C18 as stationary phase and H2O:acetonitrile:methanol (75:20:5) + 0.05% TFA as mobile phase. The use of diluted acids proved to be useful and recommended alternative, reducing the reagents volume and consequently the variability of the residues provided by the decomposition process. Comparing the digested solutions with the original sample composition, biological matrix with structural amino acids, proteins and lipids produced nitrobenzoic acid isomers and other organic compounds provided from the cleavage in chemical bonds.

Master of Science / Food Science Institute - Animal Sciences and Industry / J. Scott Smith / The popularity of convenience foods and consumer awareness have indirectly increased the demand for novel and naturally occurring compounds that can delay oxidative deterioration and maintain nutritional quality of foods. Natural antioxidants from certain herbs and spices such as rosmarinic acid from rosemary, thymol from oregano, eugenol from clove, curcumin from turmeric are rich in polyphenolic compounds that provide long term oxidative stability as well as offer additional health benefits. High antioxidative capacity of herbs and spices phenolics could potentially substitute synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), propyl gallate (PG), octyl gallate, and tert-butylated hydroquinone (TBHQ) in the food system. Synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) are thermally unstable and decompose at higher temperatures. However, widely used cooking methods such as baking, frying, boiling, and roasting use high thermal temperature that can chemically degrade herbs and spices and diminish their antioxidative capacity, but they have been little studied. In this context, this review deals with the need of natural antioxidants, spices and herbs as natural antioxidants, their origin, chemical composition, pharmacological, and antioxidant properties. Moreover, the impact of temperature on total antioxidant capacity (TAC) of various herbs and spices such as cinnamon, clove, nutmeg, mace, oregano, rosemary, sage, and turmeric is highlighted. Different antioxidant assays are also studied and this approach revealed that there is a clear correlation between total phenolic content (TPC) and TAC of herbs and spices and specific phenolic compounds are responsible for the antioxidative capacity of particular herb and spice. These findings identified the optimum cooking temperature-time combination which results in the highest retention of antioxidative capacity and assures higher quality of food for the maintenance of human health.

Entre as diferentes formas empregadas para o preparo de amostras orgânicas visando a determinação de elementos inorgânicos, uma alternativa que foi avaliada neste trabalho foi a digestão assistida por radiação microondas empregando ácidos diluídos. Estudos recentes demonstram ser essa uma alternativa eficiente no tocante à solubilização de elementos minerais para determinação por técnicas espectroscópicas. No entanto, a eficiência deste procedimento depende das características originais da amostra. Neste enfoque, a eficiência da decomposição foi avaliada, considerando-se as características originais das amostras e a caracterização dos produtos finais presentes na solução após a decomposição. Amostras de tecido vegetal (soja em gãos e Paspalum) e de tecido animal (sangue e vísceras de bovino), utilizando misturas oxidantes em diferentes concentrações ácidas foram digeridas em forno por radiação microondas com cavidade. A eficiência das decomposições, avaliada a partir da determinação dos teores de carbono orgânico residual e da recuperação de minerais. A caracterização original das amostras, realizada a partir da determinação dos teores de proteína bruta (PB), gordura (EE), carbono original (CHN-S), efetuada com o intuito de correlacionar essas características com os compostos remanescentes após as digestões. As soluções residuais foram caracterizadas inicialmente por técnica espectroscópica (RMN de 1H) para identificar os principais compostos orgânicos remanescentes. Após os primeiros resultados, estudos para separação FORAM realizados por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência com detecção por ultravioleta. Em seguida os produtos de reação foram, correlacionados com a composição química inicial das amostras. / Microwave-assisted with diluted acids is an alternative to sample preparation of organic samples owing inorganic elements solubilization for spectroscopic techniques determination. The efficiency of this procedure depends on the sample?s original characteristics. In this way, the decomposition efficiency was evaluated considering the sample?s original characteristics and the final products presents in the solution after decomposition. Grains of soybean and samples of forage, bovine blood, and bovine viscera were digested in cavity-microwave oven using oxidants mixtures in different acid concentrations. The decomposition efficiency was evaluated from residual organic carbon determination and mineral recovery by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. The original sample characterization was performed from crude protein amount, fatty, and original carbon. In order to identify the main remaining organic compounds, the residual solutions were firstly characterized by spectroscopy technique (1H NMR), with the identification of typical nitro-, aliphatic- and aromatic- compounds. Studies concerning separation of nitrobenzoic acids isomers were performed by HPLC-UV, by using reversal phase chromatography with C18 as stationary phase and H2O:acetonitrile:methanol (75:20:5) + 0.05% TFA as mobile phase. The use of diluted acids proved to be useful and recommended alternative, reducing the reagents volume and consequently the variability of the residues provided by the decomposition process. Comparing the digested solutions with the original sample composition, biological matrix with structural amino acids, proteins and lipids produced nitrobenzoic acid isomers and other organic compounds provided from the cleavage in chemical bonds.

Le stéarate de butyle, un matériau de changement de phase biosourcé (MCP), a été encapsulés dans des matrices polymères (pullulane, lignine, hémicelluloses) par la technique des émulsions concentrées. Les matrices polymères ont été réticulées avec du trimetaphosphate de sodium (STMP) dans des conditions alcalines afin d’obtenir un réseau poreux interconnecté rigide. L’influence du processus de séchage sur les matériaux composites obtenus a été étudiée, indiquant la lyophilisation comme la technique la plus efficace. Des études de calorimétrie à balayage différentiel (DSC) ont permis de déterminer que l’encapsulation de stéarate de butyle dans des matrices polymères ne modifiait pas ses propriétés thermiques de changement de phase. Des essais de compression mécanique et de résistance à la déformation ont permis d'évaluer le potentiel des monolithes en tant que panneaux de stockage de chaleur installés directement dans des bâtiments et des serres.Les produits de réticulation par le STMP ont été identifiés et caractérisés par RMN solide du31P. Il a ainsi été possible de synthétiser des monolithes ayant différents taux de réticulation afin d’optimiser la formulation d'encapsulation de MCP. Les matrices polymères vidée de tous leurs contenus liquides ont été étudiées par microscopie électronique à balayage afin d’étudier leur structure poreuse (distribution de taille des pores). Cette nouvelle approche d’encapsulation en une étape apparaît comme efficace et devrait permettre un développement important des applications énergétiques. / Emulsion-templated polymer based (pullulan, lining and hemicelluloses) monoliths encapsulating butyl stearate as bio-based phase change material (PCM) were synthesized. Polymer-bases were crosslinked with sodium trimetaphosphate (STMP) under alkaline aqueous conditions leading to an interconnected porous network. The influence of the drying process on the obtained composite materials morphology was studied indicating freeze-drying as the most effective technique. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) studies allow to assess that encapsulation of butyl stearate onto matrices do not alter its phase change thermal properties. Mechanical compression and strain resistance tests allowed to evaluate monoliths potential as heat storage panels installed directly in buildings and greenhouses, STMP crosslinking products were identified by solid-NMR characterization, this allowed to synthetize monoliths at different crosslinking yields to find a formulation that improves PCM encapsulation. Polymer matrices were studied by scanning electron microscopy to identify the pore size distribution obtained in STMP crosslinked materials. This new one-step encapsulating approach appears as efficient and cost-effective and is expected to find a broad development in energy storage applications

Die artgerechte Erzeugung tierischer Lebensmittel hat einen großen Stellenwert bei Verbrauchern eingenommen. Zum Schutz der Verbraucher, werden analytische Verfahren benötigt, um Lebensmittel verlässlich zu authentifizieren. Von Schwarzenbolz et al. (2016) wurde ein Ansatz beschrieben, bei welchem über die Analyse von freien Maillard-Reaktionsprodukten (MRP) in tierischen Lebensmitteln, wie Milch und Milchprodukten, Aussagen über die Fütterung der Tiere mit thermisch behandelten Futtermitteln getroffen werden können. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein grundlegender Überblick über die Konzentrationen einzelner MRP in unterschiedlichen Futtermitteln für Milchkühe geschaffen, welcher eine Abschätzung der quantitativen Aufnahme von MRP über das Futter von Milchkühen erlaubt. Mithilfe von Untersuchungen zum Carry-over von MRP in verschiedenen Nutztieren erfolgten Abschätzungen zur Bioverfügbarkeit der MRP in den Nutztieren, wobei sich Unterschiede zwischen den untersuchten MRP Pyrralin, MG-H1 und CML zeigten. Erhitzungsexperimente und Modellinkubationen von Milch lieferten neue Erkenntnisse zur Bildung bzw. zum Abbau freier MRP während der Prozessierung von Milch zu Milchprodukten. Diese Ergebnisse können einen Beitrag zur Authentifizierung von tierischen Lebensmitteln leisten, da über die Konzentrationen von freien MRP in den Lebensmitteln Aussagen zum aufgenommenen Futtermittel und einer evtl. artgerechten, d.h. MRP-armen, Tierernährung getroffen werden können. Eine weitere Charakterisierung der Bioverfügbarkeit von MRP, insbesondere in Bezug auf individuelle Unterschiede, ist jedoch noch notwendig. [Schwarzenbolz U, Hofmann T, Sparmann N, Henle T (2016). J. Agric. Food Chem., 64, 5071-5078.]

M. Tech. (Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology): Vaal University of Technology / Strict environmental regulation on flue gas emission has led to the implementation of FGD technologies in power stations. Wet FGD technology is commonly used because it has high SO2 removal efficiency, high sorbent utilization and due to availability of the sorbent (limestone) used. SO2 is removed by passing flue gas through the absorber where it reacts with the slurry containing calcium ions which is obtained by dissolution. This study presents the findings of the dissolution of a calcium-based material (limestone) for wet FGD process. This was done using a pH stat apparatus and adipic acid as acid titrant. Adipic acid was used because of its buffering effect in wet FGD process. The conditions used for this study are similar to what is encountered in a wet FGD process. The extent of dissolution was determined by analyzing the amount of calcium ions in solution at different dissolution periods. The dissolution kinetics were correlated to the shrinking core model and it was found out that chemical reaction at the surface of the particle is the rate controlling step. This study also investigated the dissolution of coal fly ash and bottom ash. Their dissolution kinetics showed that the diffusion through the product layer was the rate controlling step due to an ash layer formed around the particle. The formation of ash layer was attributed to pozzolanic reaction products which is calcium-alumino-silicate (anorthite) compounds were formed after dissolution. The effect of fly ash on the dissolution of rate of limestone was also studied using response surface methodology. Limestone reactivity was found to increase with increase in the amount of fly ash added and the pH was found to be strong function of the rate constant compared to other dissolution variables. The presence of silica and alumina in fly ash led to a significant increase in the specific surface area due to hydration products formed after dissolution. / Eskom